PEPAdb (Prehistoric Europe’s Personal Adornment Database) is a long-term, open-ended project that aims to improve access to archaeological data online. Its website (https://pepadb.us.es) publishes and analyses datasets about prehistoric personal adornment, drawing on the results of various research projects and bibliographic references., During the past 10 years, PEPAdb has been funded by the following agencies and budget programmes: Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO); Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICIN); Funda\u00E7\u00E3o para a Ci\u00EAncia e a Tecnologia (FCT); Plan Andaluz de Desarrollo e Innovaci\u00F3n, Junta de Andaluc\u00EDa (PAIDI); Juan de la Cierva Program of the MICIN, University Teacher Training Program (FPU); Plan for Transfer and Innovation of the University of Seville (PPTIUS); Youth Employment Plan of the University of Seville (PEJUS). It has a budget of more than \u20AC1.2 million that is allocated to personnel, research infrastructures and R&D expenses., Peer reviewed

In recent years, significant advancements have occurred in our comprehension of amber consumption patterns in the Iberian Peninsula. This progress stems from the increasing volume of FTIR data related to both archaeological and geological amber. Consequently, a chronological model has been established, delineating amber consumption in the Iberian Peninsula from the Late Paleolithic to the Iron Age. Broadly, local amber consumption has been minimal since the Paleolithic period. Sicilian amber makes its appearance in Iberia around the 5th millennium BCE and fades away in the 2nd millennium BCE, giving way to Baltic amber, which has remained the sole source since then. The well-defined chronological model, the abundance of FTIR provenance data, and the infrequent association of amber with absolute or relative dates prompt us to explore whether provenance can serve as a chrono-cultural proxy for amber beads. This study introduces new amber finds, presents fresh FTIR data on archaeological amber ornaments, and incorporates minor updates and bug fixes to the general catalog. It is the outcome of a thorough bibliographic review and on-site analysis and examination of the beads. The results obtained in this study enable the reconstruction of amber consumption throughout Iberian prehistory, drawing on 29 newly FTIR-analyzed ambers from 9 sites. Our findings expand the empirical foundation, facilitating the confirmation of diachronic changes in amber consumption. Importantly, they affirm that amber provenance can indeed be employed as a viable chrono-cultural proxy., We extend our sincere gratitude to the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia (Lisbon, Portugal); Museo de Prehistoria de Valencia (Valencia, Spain); Museu Arqueològic i Etnològic del Comtat (Cocentaina, Spain); Museo Arqueológico de Cádiz (Cádiz, Spain); and UNIARQ (Lisbon, Portugal) for generously facilitating the analysis and photography of the pieces within their collections, as well as providing their valuable staff to assist in the fieldwork. A special acknowledgment is due to Pere Ferrer at the Centre d’Estudis Constetans (Cocentaina, Spain) for his insightful comments on the contexts of Cova del Llidoner., This work received initial support from the Junta de Andaluc\u00EDa \u2212 Consejer\u00EDa de Econom\u00EDa, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad (Reference: P20_01080), followed by additional funding from the Funda\u00E7\u00E3o para a Ci\u00EAncia e a Tecnologia (Reference: 2022.09207.PTDC), and the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00F3n (Reference: PID2021-124421NB-I00).Galo Romero-Garc\u00EDa expresses gratitude to the Spanish Ministerio de Universidades for a PhD grant under the Ayudas para la formaci\u00F3n de profesorado universitario (FPU), and Daniel S\u00E1nchez-G\u00F3mez acknowledges the Funda\u00E7\u00E3o para a Ci\u00EAncia e a Tecnologia for a PhD grant (UI/BD/154365/2023)., Galo Romero-García expresses gratitude to the Spanish Ministerio de Universidades for a PhD grant under the Ayudas para la formación de profesorado universitario (FPU), and Daniel Sánchez-Gómez acknowledges the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia for a PhD grant (UI/BD/154365/2023) ., Peer reviewed

The discovery of a set of beads, comprising both Sicilian amber and resin-coated beads in the Middle Bronze Age burial site of Cova del Gegant (Sitges, Barcelona, Spain), has sparked inquiries into whether the coating was intended for imitation or counterfeiting of amber. We assert that human-made materials, such as bead coatings, are intentionally conceived, designed, and crafted to fulfill specific functions. Thus, for an object to effectively fulfill its intended purpose, it must meet particular performance criteria influenced by situational factors. This paper aims to construct an empirically grounded narrative elucidating the development and function of resin-coated bead technology. Our methodology includes a comprehensive quantitative analysis of the coating and beads, an exploration of the interplay between technical choices and situational factors, and an investigation into whether the simulation of sensory performance characteristics played a pivotal role in the concept and design of resin-coated beads. Additionally, we synthesize data to unveil broader patterns related to the crafting and utilization of resin-coated and amber beads across time and space. We have documented resin-coated beads in the Iberian Peninsula from the Neolithic period (5th to 3rd millennia BCE) until at least the Middle Bronze Age (first half of the 2nd millennium BCE), where they coexisted with amber beads. Analysis employing ATR-FTIR and μ-CT imaging has revealed a composite coating comprising pine resin, beeswax, and carotene, adhered to shell beads with bone glue. This composite material represents the earliest known development in human history, unique to the Iberian Peninsula and without parallel in Prehistoric Europe. Our examination of the performance characteristics and functional roles of resin-coated beads suggests their potential as substitutes for amber beads, particularly in regions where amber was scarce or inaccessible. Despite being crafted from commonplace materials, these coated beads exhibit intentional design choices likely aimed at simulating the visual performance characteristics of amber. This deliberate effort, alongside their widespread distribution across time and space, indicates that composite-coated beads held symbolic and social significance akin to amber beads., The authors wish to express their gratitude to the following organizations and entities for their invaluable support in the research project:
The Junta de Andalucía (Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad) for the initial funding of this project, with reference to P20_01080.
The Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia for their financial support with reference to 2022.09207.PTDC (https://doi.org/10.54499/2022.09207.PTDC).
The Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación for their financial support under reference PID2021-124421NB-I00.
Galo Romero-García is grateful for a PhD grant from the Spanish Ministerio de Universidades through the Ayudas para la formación de profesorado universitario (FPU).
Daniel Sánchez-Gómez acknowledges UNIARQ for providing a PhD grant.
The authors extend their special thanks to the following institutions and individuals for their generous assistance:
Museu Municipal Lionel Trindades de Torres Novas (Torres Novas, Portugal)
Museu Nacional de Arqueologia (Lisbon, Portugal)
Museu dos Serviços Geológicos de Portugal (Lisbon, Portugal)
Museu Municipal de Almada (Almada, Portugal)
Museo Municipal de Estepona (Estepona, Spain)
Col·lectiu per a la Investigació de la Prehistòria i l'Arqueologia del Garraf-Ordal (Begues, Spain)
Museo Arqueológico Provincial de Sevilla (Sevilla, Spain)
Seminari d’Estudis I Recerques Prehistòriques, University of Barcelona, Spain
Filipa Rodrigues (CRIVARQUE)
Museu de Bellas Artes de Castellón (Castellón de la Plana, Spain)
Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
Their collaboration, provision of access to their collections, and on-site assistance during fieldwork greatly facilitated the analysis and documentation of the artefacts., Peer reviewed

In recent years, significant advancements have occurred in our comprehension of amber consumption patterns in the Iberian Peninsula. This progress stems from the increasing volume of FTIR data related to both archaeological and geological amber. Consequently, a chronological model has been established, delineating amber consumption in the Iberian Peninsula from the Late Paleolithic to the Iron Age. Broadly, local amber consumption has been minimal since the Paleolithic period. Sicilian amber makes its appearance in Iberia around the 5th millennium BCE and fades away in the 2nd millennium BCE, giving way to Baltic amber, which has remained the sole source since then. The well-defined chronological model, the abundance of FTIR provenance data, and the infrequent association of amber with absolute or relative dates prompt us to explore whether provenance can serve as a chrono-cultural proxy for amber beads. This study introduces new amber finds, presents fresh FTIR data on archaeological amber ornaments, and incorporates minor updates and bug fixes to the general catalog. It is the outcome of a thorough bibliographic review and on-site analysis and examination of the beads. The results obtained in this study enable the reconstruction of amber consumption throughout Iberian prehistory, drawing on 29 newly FTIR-analyzed ambers from 9 sites. Our findings expand the empirical foundation, facilitating the confirmation of diachronic changes in amber consumption. Importantly, they affirm that amber provenance can indeed be employed as a viable chrono-cultural proxy.