BUSCADOR RECOLECTA

Water policy requires well established metrics for success. Precise metrics allow for quantifying progress and adjusting processes to produce the desired outcomes. We analyze the different schools of thought, nomenclatures and indicators developed for tracking water for human activities. After comparing a variety of terms related to water accounting used to serve the different purposes (environmental vs. ecological economics), we found that the different approaches to water tracking utilize identical terms to refer to distinctive concepts. The characterization of widely used terms such as 'water use' varies across different branches of literature. Different approaches to water measurement and its efficiency have an impact on water allocation. Our paper points out that the current definitions and methods for tracking water for human activities may offer contradictory advice over whether progress is being made towards desirable objectives, which may differ across stakeholders. This review aims at helping the transfer of academic results to empirical decision-making by discerning the differences among the variety of indicators available in the literature and their empirical implications. The ambiguity in the water terminology should be clarified before policy decisions can be useful in practice for guiding actions., The project leading to these results has received funding from ‘la Caixa’ and Caja Navarra Foundation, under agreement LCF/PR/PR13/51080004. Two of the authors, Sesma-Martín and Rubio-Varas, must also acknowledge the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) as financing entities, through the research project reference HAR2017-86086-R (AEI/ERDF, EU). Sesma-Martín also benefits from the research contract reference 1295/2019, assigned to the History and Economics Group from UPNA.

Póster presentado en el Día Mundial del Agua. Centro de Documentación del Agua y el Medioambiente, Zaragoza, 2019., Objetivo: hacer una primera estimación de las necesidades hídricas de las centrales nucleares españolas desde 1969 hasta 2014. El objetivo es, por tanto, calcular el uso consuntivo del agua (la cantidad de agua evaporada, transpirada o incorporada a la producción de energía) por las centrales nucleares españolas, así como la cantidad total de agua extraída y necesaria para el funcionamiento de las centrales nucleares., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación (ref. BES-2015-074128).

The energy sector is the main contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and one of the thirstiest sectors worldwide. Within the energy sector, thermoelectricity directly impacts on both emissions and water. This study assesses the evolution of the direct CO2 emissions and operational water consumption of the Spanish thermoelectricity generation from 1969 to 2019. Both carbon emissions and water consumption correlate over time, led by the trends in total thermal generation, although over the past half century, water requirements swelled far more than carbon emissions. This results in a long-term trade-off between carbon emissions and consumptive water use in relative terms: while the CO2 per thermal MWh generated halved since 1969 in Spain, the operational water consumption per MWh of thermoelectricity generated more than doubled due to switching from coal burning to nuclear and combined cycle technologies. We find no real trade-off in absolute levels. Although moving towards smaller environmental impacts since the mid-2000s, thermoelectricity remains one of the largest carbon emitters while becoming one of thirstiest energy technologies in Spain., This publication has been supported by the grant HAR2017-860086-R funded by MCIN/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033 and by 'ERDF A way of making Europe'. Sara Cano-Rodríguez benefits from the doctoral research contract reference PER2018-085704. Sesma-Martín also benefits from the research contract reference 1295/2019. Both assigned to the History and Economics Group from UPNA.

The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI)is a quantitative indicator of concentration of the energy mix based upon the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. We use the EMCI to compare the evolution of the diversification (versus concentration)of energy mixes in the long-term in order to reveal the transformations of the energy structures which determine energy transitions. In this methodological paper we make explicit how to aggregate the energy sources in order to calculate the EMCI, including questions of detail such us the level of aggregation and the transformation of primary electricity to add it up to total consumption. We present alternative figures that illustrate some additional aspects of the relation of the EMCI to total consumption, consumption per capita and energy annual growth. We also show the sensitivity of the indicator to alternative specifications (with and without pre-modern energy sources)and alternative data sets, proving its robustness. Indicate how to aggregate energy carriers in the calculation of a quantitative index of concentration of the energy mix. Compare alternative specifications (with or without pre-modern energy carriers). EMCI focus on the major energy sources in the energy systems., This research was supported by the National Program of R+D+i Projects of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Refs.: HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R (AEI/FEDER, UE)).

We analysed the process of construction and connection to the electrical grid of four Spanish nuclear power plants with different financial and technological foreign partners: those of Zorita (PWR by Westinghouse), Garoña (BWR by General Electric) and Vandellós I (GCR by EDF) (belonging to the first generation of atomic plants and producing electricity from 1969–72) and that of Trillo I (PWR by KWU, connected in 1988). These four examples allow us to observe how the learning curve of nuclear engineering and the acquisition of skills by Spanish companies evolved. Progressively the domestic industry achieved higher levels of participation, fostered by the Ministry of Industry and Energy. When the atomic plants under construction were paralysed by the nuclear moratorium of 1984, and several other projects were abandoned by the utilities along the way, Spain had developed an industrial sector around the fabrication of service components and engineering for nuclear power plants to compete internationally., The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the Spanish Government through research grants HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. Additionally, Rubio-Varas and De la Torre received funding from the Euratom research and training programme 2014–2018 under grant agreement N°662268.

Póster presentado a las 3ª Jornadas Doctorales del Campus Iberus. Jaca, 2016., Objectives: our research pioneers a first approximation to the water footprint of the Spanish nuclear power plants operating with freshwater from 1969 to the present. Our aim is to calculate the consumptive use of water (i.e. the amount of water evaporated, transpired, or incorporated in energy production) for Spanish nuclear power plants, and the amounts of water withdrawals required for running nuclear power plants. To sum up, what is the water impact of our nuclear power plants? Will water limit our energy future? Should water be considered when planning the electricity mix in the future? These are some of the questions to solve., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación (ref. BES-2015-074128).

© IWA Publishing 2019. The definitive peer-reviewed and edited version of this article is published in Water Policy 21 (2): 382-393. DOI 10.2166/wp.2019.081 and is available at www.iwapublishing.com.”, This paper focuses on the fact that the water–energy nexus remains an irrelevant issue on the energy policy agenda and on the priorities of the energy leaders in Spain. This is a striking fact given that this takes place in the most arid country in Europe, where almost two-thirds of electricity generation would have to be halted in the absence of an adequate water supply. We contend that part of the explanation may lie in the lack of official statistics and inconsistent sources of information on the water–energy nexus in Spain. To illustrate this point, we provide examples of the uneven data available for one of the most intensive freshwater users in the thermoelectric sector in Spain: nuclear power plants. Our research demonstrates the need for improved indicators as policy instruments in the water–energy nexus in Spain since it is impossible to improve what cannot be measured., This work was supported by the Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects reference
HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. The first author also benefits from a research contract
with the Spanish Government through the MINECO reference BES-2015-074128. We appreciate the
helpful comments and suggestions received by the three anonymous reviewers.

Póster presentado en el Día Mundial del Agua. Centro de Documentación del Agua y el Medioambiente, Zaragoza, 2019., Trabajo en el que se aborda la mutua dependencia agua-energía y el agua como fuente de producción eléctrica, Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación predoctoral (ref. BES-2015-074128)

Water is essential for almost all energy processes. This paper analyses the evolution of
the cooling water needs of thermal power plants in the Ebro River basin, the largest contributor to
the Spanish electricity grid, over the period 1969–2015. It makes several contributions. First, the
cooling water needs for the plants are estimated. Second, these water requirements are compared to
other water-using activities in the region. Third, a long-term water-use efficiency analysis is carried
out. Finally, water-saving measures are proposed to counter possible future water scarcities. The
results show that thermoelectric water consumption per capita is around 7 m3/year. Estimated future
thermal power generation water withdrawals (around 500 m3 per capita/year) might compromise
flows for other water uses in periods of drought., This research was supported by the Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects,
references HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. The author also benefits from a research contract from Spanish Government through MINECO reference BES-2015-074128.

Esta tesis es un compendio de tres trabajos finalizados y publicados durante mi periodo como estudiante de doctorado. El primer trabajo muestra evidencia de la falta de estadísticas oficiales y la inconsistencia entre las diferentes fuentes de información que contienen información sobre las necesidades hídricas para producción de energía eléctrica de las centrales nucleares en España. La mejora de estos indicadores daría como resultado una mejor estimación de las necesidades de agua dulce para la generación de energía térmica y una mejor comprensión de esta problemática. El segundo artículo ofrece una estimación a largo plazo de las necesidades de agua dulce de las centrales nucleares españolas, las centrales más sedientas del sector termoeléctrico español, durante el período 1969-2014. El último artículo profundiza más en esta cuestión, analizando la evolución de los volúmenes de agua necesarios para producción de electricidad de las centrales nucleares y resto de térmicas convencionales ubicadas en la cuenca del Ebro, el mayor contribuyente a la generación eléctrica española. Todos estos resultados pretenden cubrir parte del vacío existente en la literatura española sobre el nexo agua-energía., This dissertation is a compendium of three papers completed and published during my time as PhD student. The first paper provides evidence on the lack of official statistics and the inconsistency among the sources of information related to water for nuclear power generation in Spain. The improvement of these indicators would result in a better estimation of the freshwater needs for thermal power generation and a better understanding of this matter. The second paper provides a long-term estimation of the freshwater volumes needed for the operation of Spanish nuclear power plants, the thirstiest power facilities within the Spanish thermoelectric sector, for the period 1969-2014. Finally, the last paper goes further and analyses the evolution of the cooling water needs of nuclear and conventional thermal power plants located in the Ebro River basin, the major contributor to the Spanish electricity generation. All these achievements aim to cover part of the existing gap in the Spanish literature on the water-energy nexus., Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects reference HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. Research contract with the Spanish Government through the MINECO reference BES-2015-074128., Programa de Doctorado en Economía, Empresa y Derecho (RD 99/2011), Ekonomiako, Enpresako eta Zuzenbideko Doktoretza Programa (ED 99/2011)

The relationship between energy and capital is one of the most important
aspects of modern economic growth. Machines need energy to produce all
the goods we enjoy; energy would be far less useful for humankind in
absence of machines. However, the great majority of the economic
models do not take into account the elasticities of substitution (or
complementaries) between these two main variables. Actually, energy is
absent in many growth models and discussions on diverging economic
development paths. We approach this relevant issue from a new
perspective: energy and capital relations during 100 years. We use the
latest estimations of capital stock (machinery and equipment) and
energy consumption for Latin America and compare them with those of
Western Europe. The energy–capital ratio (how much energy is used per
unit of capital) could be a predictor of economic growth, thus providing
stylised facts about the timing and causes of the different modernisation
patterns of these regions and showing us some answers on the long-run
relationship between energy consumption and capital accumulation., Cristián Ducoing acknowledges the funding by Comisión Nacional de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (CONICYT),
Chile, with the project PAI:82130021 and Jan Wallanders och Tom Hedelius Stiftelse samt Tore Browaldhs
Stiftelse ‘Engines for sustainability. Horsepower prices, capital substitution and energy transitions in the long run’.
Mar Rubio acknowledges the financial support by Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte Spanish Government,
project HAR2017-86086-R.

Póster presentado en el Día Mundial del Agua. Centro de Documentación del Agua y el Medioambiente, Zaragoza, 2019., Este estudio evalúa las necesidades de agua para la generación de energía termoeléctrica en la Cuenca del Ebro. Mediante el cálculo de las demandas y consumos de agua para generación termoeléctrica en la región, este estudio profundiza en el conocimiento sobre el nexo agua-energía y cubre buena parte del vacío existente en la literatura sobre este tema en España., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación (ref. BES-2015-074128)

The authors propose a synthetic indicator that allows one to compare and contrast the evolution of the composition of the primary energy baskets of eight European countries over the last two centuries, and quantitatively analyze the degree of concentration (versus diversity) of their energy mixes throughout the period. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: section 2 explains the data sources and the methodology used based on concentration measures. The subsequent section focuses on the Energy Mix Concentration Index analysis and the results obtained. The article ends with a few concluding remarks., This research was supported by the National Program of R+D+i Projects of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Refs.: HAR2014-53825 and HAR2017-86086R).

Este artículo explora los procesos de aprendizaje y de transferencia tecnológica que situaron
a España entre los firstcomers de la energía nuclear a finales de los años sesenta. Se trata
de un ejemplo de industria naciente que, bajo la protección del Estado y la acción de los consorcios
empresariales y de las multinacionales norteamericanas, fue capaz de replicar un reto
tecnológico complejo. Analizamos cómo se fue creando un ecosistema empresarial en el que
fue clave el liderazgo de algunos ingenieros y la cooperación y competencia entre industrias,
ingenierías y consultoras. La historia empresarial de las centrales nucleares de Zorita y Garoña
ejemplifica un modelo de learning by doing que, a través de los contratos 'llave en mano',
permitieron un rápido crecimiento del sector, convenciendo al gobierno de la dictadura y a los
promotores eléctricos de que era posible llevar a cabo uno de los programas nucleares más ambiciosos
de la Europa occidental., This article explores the learning and technology transfer processes that placed Spain among the firstcomers of nuclear energy in the late 1960s. It is an example of a infantindustry that, under the protection of the State and the action of the business consortiums and of the North American multinationals, was able to replicate a complex technological challenge. We analyzed how an entrepreneurial ecosystem was created in which the leadership of some engineers and the cooperation and competition between industries, engineering and consultants were key. The business history of the Zorita and Garoña nuclear power plants exemplifies a model of learning by doing that, through turnkey contracts, allowed a rapid growth of the sector, convincing the dictatorship government and the electric promoters that it was possible to carry out one of the most ambitious nuclear programs in Western Europe., Este trabajo se ha beneficiado de la financiación de los proyectos del MCCIN HAR2014-53825-R y HAR 2017-86086-R.

This article is focused on nuclear transboundary issues between Portugal and Spain, two countries that share a long history of nuclear collaboration and conflict of late, where national borders played a crucial role. The issues at stake cover the full spectrum of the nuclear cycle: uranium mining, power production and waste disposal. The first stage, under two fascist dictatorships, was characterised by collaboration within a common techno-political imaginary, where nuclear energy was understood as a driver of modernity, but with the absence of the public in decision-making processes. The second stage was marked by the advent of democracy in both countries and the reconfiguration of nuclear policies: while Portugal abandoned the nuclear endeavour, Spain implemented a nuclear moratorium but kept ten reactors operative. The third phase, which started in 1986 and goes until the present time, was marked by two crucial events: joining the European Communities (EC) and the Chernobyl accident. The first event allowed Brussels to become a referee on Spanish/Portuguese nuclear disputes. The second one implied that Portugal expanded its institutional vigilance on Spanish nuclear activities and led to the emergence of transboundary social movements against nuclear power., The Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (project ref. HAR2017-86086-R) financed parts the meetings and research required to complete this piece. This project has received funding from the Euratom research and training programme 2014-2018 under grant agreement N°662268. Despite of this, the views expressed here are of the entire responsibility of the authors, as well as any errors and/or omissions.

Water resources are limited and uneven in space and time. Competition for the use of the resource can lead to conflicts between water users. Besides its use for irrigation and agriculture, water is an essential input in the thermoelectric power generation process. Massive Spanish nuclear program projects have conditioned water management in the country, as significant freshwater volumes need to be constantly available for the proper operation of these facilities. Water for cooling has conflicted with other water-using activities, resulting in regional imbalances. The present study shows that cooling water represented a source of conflict between irrigators and electricity companies in Spain in the 1970s and 1980s. A historical analysis of documentary sources reveals that the drawing off of fresh water for cooling by the nuclear industry was one of the many causes of frequent disputes and the rise of social movements against the installation of nuclear power plants in Spain during that period., This research was supported by the Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects, reference HAR2017–86086-R. The author also benefits from a research contract assigned to the History and Economics Group of the Public University of Navarre, reference 1295/2019.

Nuclear energy was one among business opportunities brought by the take off in science and technology after the Second World War. The narratives of the milestones of atomic history neglect the commercial, industrial and organizational aspects that made it possible. This paper concentrates on what makes the nuclear business exceptional (or not). We undertake an analysis of the nuclear supply business (designing, manufacturing and installing nuclear facilities) distinct from the analysis of the demand side (business operating nuclear power plants). We identify a continuing role of the state in civil nuclear businesses and a symbiotic relationship with private atomic business. And yet, for the most part the nuclear business applies the usual criteria of cost minimization and profit maximization within the boundaries of a non-perfectly competitive market. We argue that the development of civil nuclear projects is core not just to business history as a discipline but to post-war history. © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group., Two of the authors, Rubio-Varas and De la Torre, must acknowledge the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) as financing entities, through the research project reference HAR2017-86,086-R (AEI/ERDF, EU).

Póster presentado a las 9ª Jornadas Doctorales & 4ª Jornadas de Divulgación científica G-9. Bilbao, 2022., A pesar de la esperanza depositada en una transición global dirigida desde las instituciones, las compañías eléctricas han marcado los ritmos de cambio en la forma de generación de electricidad desde los inicios del sector. Haciendo un análisis histórico comparado de la Península Ibérica comprobamos que la termoelectricidad ha venido descarbonizándose en términos relativos por sí sola desde 1969, mucho antes de la entrada de las renovables y las políticas de mitigación, y que existe una pugna por liderar la transición entre las compañías más grandes con Iberdrola a la cabeza, que reside en un sendero de búsqueda de la rentabilidad que todavía desconocemos. El objetivo de este trabajo es esgrimir algunos de esos factores desde la mirada histórica., Entidades financiadoras: Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad de España y Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), a través del proyecto de investigación referencia HAR2017-86086-R (AEI / FEDER, UE). Adicionalmente, Sara Cano-Rodríguez es beneficiaria del contrato de investigación doctoral referencia PER2018-085704 del Ministerio de Ciencia Innovación, adscrito al Grupo de Historia y Economía de la UPNA

Póster presentado al 18th World Economic History Conference. Boston (EE. UU.), 2018., Objectives: this ongoing work is part of a more extensive doctoral thesis which aims to provide an estimate of water needs for thermoelectric production in Spain covering the entire electrical history from 1900 to the present. In this context, this paper seeks to highlight the main role of water within the Spanish history, observing how water management and institutions in Spain have changed over the long term to understand the causes of water conflicts, and finally, focusing on all those possible conflicts rarely discussed in the literature., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación pre-doctoral (ref. BES-2015-074128).