BUSCADOR RECOLECTA

El artículo interpreta el algoritmo como imaginario, es decir, como un conjunto de significaciones, afectos y deseos que une —a través de dimensiones de creencia, magia, fetiche, saber secreto, liminalidad y confianza— la experiencia individual y el sistema social atando así el «milagro» de la efectividad cotidiana de los aparatos con el proyecto de la sociedad que lo sostiene. El análisis desde el imaginario social (Castoriadis) permite acercarse al algoritmo como fenómeno social y cultural que
vincula y sutura diferentes niveles de lo tecnológico y lo social.

The article interprets the algorithm as imaginary, that is, as a complex of meanings, affects and desires that unites - through dimensions of belief, magic, fetish, secret knowledge, liminality and trust - the indi-vidual experience and the social system, thus tying the «miracle» of the everyday effectiveness of the devices to the project of the society that sustains it. The analysis from the social imaginary (Castoriadis) allows us to approach the algorithm as a social and cultural phenomenon that connects and sutures different levels of the technological and the social

En esta investigación se discute el posible sesgo en el desarrollo de las entrevistas televisivas a líderes políticos españoles. Se considera que el proceso narrativo audiovisual y la puesta en escena, responsabilidad del equipo de realización, puede tener un papel decisivo en la neutralidad de las entrevistas. Se analiza el tratamiento audiovisual realizado a cada uno de los líderes políticos, Pedro Sánchez, Pablo Iglesias, Albert Rivera y Mariano Rajoy y a sus colaboradores más cercanos, Adriana Lastra, Pablo Echenique, Fernando de Páramo y Fernando Martínez-Maíllo, en 2018. Durante las entrevistas analizadas se han descubierto narrativas audiovisuales dirigidas desde el equipo de realización del programa capaces de condicionar la imparcialidad de la entrevista. Se discute si el tratamiento audiovisual otorgado a cada uno de los líderes políticos es homogéneo, siendo las localizaciones y escenografías similares. Los resultados evidencian que los distintos líderes políticos no han tenido las mismas condiciones o tratamiento narrativo en la realización audiovisual, por lo que no se han enfrentado a las mismas amenazas implícitas en las preguntas que componen las entrevistas analizadas., This study discusses possible bias in making television interviews with Spanish political leaders. The audiovisual narrative process and scene-setting, the responsibility of the production team, are seen as playing a decisive role in the neutrality of interviews. The study analyses the audiovisual manner by which the Spanish public television corporation, TVE, treated the main Spanish political leaders Pedro Sánchez, Pablo Iglesias, Albert Rivera and Mariano Rajoy on its programme Los desayunos de TVE, as well as their closest collaborators, Adriana Lastra, Pablo Echenique, Fernando de Páramo and Fernando Martínez-Maíllo, in 2018. In the interviews analysed, audiovisual narratives were identified; these were guided by the programme’s directors, who are able to influence the impartiality of the interview. The homogeneity of the audiovisual coverage on each political leader is discussed, in respect of all the locations and scene-settings being similar. The results show that the different political leaders did not receive the same conditions or narrative coverage in the audiovisual direction. Consequently, they did not face the same implicit threats in the interview questions analysed., Este artículo ha sido realizado en el marco del proyecto “Estrategias, agendas y discursos en las cibercampañas electorales: medios de comunicación y ciudadanos (2017-2020)” de la Universitat de València, financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (CSO2016- 77331-C2-1-R).

Twitter dataset for a research on the 2015 Spanish General Election.
The tweets were obtained through the Twitter API's Search function since November 2 to December 21, 2015. Three criteria for filtering tweets were established: two general terms linked to the elections ("#20D", "20-D"); the name and usernames of the four main parties (PP, PSOE, Podemos and Ciudadanos), and the name and usernames of the four candidates from those parties. The research assessed the tweet's issue according to Patterson (1980)'s typology for evaluating political mediatisation. The dataset contains three files: the unlabelled collection of the 15.8 million tweet ids obtained through the API, the annotated sample of the 3,117 tweet ids for assessing the issue via machine learning, and the readme.txt file. It is recommended to open the file from a text editor or through a script. The id_str must be handled as a string. If the file is open from Excel, the id_str will be interpreted as a number, and then converted into a float, losing information in this transformation

The sponsored content on social networks has raised new questions and research objectives, including discussions regarding the budget invested in these sites by political parties, as well as the new central role that technology corporations play in electoral contexts. This dataset comprises 10,485 Facebook Ad corpus obtained from the Facebook Ad Library through a web crawler developed in Pyhton. The dataset elements correspond to the Facebook Ads paid by the main national political parties during the two 2019 Spanish General Elections precampaign and campaign. The parties are the following: Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE), Partido Popular (PP), Ciudadanos, Unidas Podemos (coalition of Podemos and Izquierda Unida) and Vox. The General Elections were held on April 28 and November 10., We would like to thank Exponentia CIO Juan Besari for providing the appropriate hardware to carry out the Facebook Ad extraction processes.

[EN] Candidates, parties, media and citizens have the same ability to post tweets. For this reason, mapping the dynamics of interaction among users is essential to evaluate the processes of influence in an electoral campaign. However, characterising these aspects requires methodologies that consider the interconnections generated by users globally. The discipline of social network analysis provides the concepts of centrality and modularity, both very suitable for the context of network communication. This article analyses the political conversation on Twitter during the 2015 and 2016 General Elections in Spain, in which four candidates with significant popularity in the electorate participated. Two corpora of 8.9¿million and 9.7¿million tweets were collected from each campaign, respectively, to analyse the networks of mentions and retweets. The network of mentions appears more blurred than that of retweets, allowing us to better estimate users¿ partisan preference. The graphs of the network of retweets show a strong internal activity within clusters, and the proximity between them reflects the ideological axis of each party., This study would have been impossible if not for the assistance of Emilio Giner, who helped the author in the Twitter mining process. This work was supported by the Spanish Government's Ministry for the Economy and Competitiveness, with Grants CSO2013-43960-R ('Communication flows in the political mobilisation processes: media, blogs, and opinion leaders') and CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R ('Strategies, agendas and discourse in electoral cyber campaigns: media and citizens').

[EN] The infotainment format offers candidates an informal setting to show a more personal side of themselves to the electorate, opening themselves up to potential voters. An example of media hybridisation, social networks users can immediately comment on infotainment television programmes, a process known as second screening. These second screeners tend to be especially active in politics. This paper analyses the immediate emotional reaction of these users as they watch infotainment programmes that air during the campaign or pre-campaign seasons and feature political candidates as guests. We have confirmed that second screeners react more emotionally towards the candidate when his or her party is mentioned, and less emotionally when the host displays an aggressive attitude through his or her non-verbal communication. When issues related to the candidate¿s personal lives are discussed, users¿ emotional reactions improve slightly. The relevance of this research stems from the fact that we are witnessing the consolidation of a politics that increasingly strays from ideological questions, and instead focuses on more emotional and personal issues., This work was supported by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad under Grants CSO2013-43960-R and CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R.

[EN] The mediatisation model in politics assumes that media conveys political messages between parties and citizenship, with the risk of promoting issues that frame the electoral content in terms of competition. These dynamics could distract from the debate of ideas and political policies. However, digital media like Twitter provide direct communication channels between parties, candidates and users. The present research explores Twitter content during an electoral campaign focused on the four issues proposed by Patterson (1980) to assess mediatisation: political, policy, campaign and personal (regarding the candidate). The goal of this research study is to evaluate the degree of mediatisation on Twitter using this typology. The research also evaluates the influence of the issue on retweet volume. The study¿s basis was a 15.8 million-tweet corpus obtained during the 2015 Spanish General Election pre-campaign and campaign. This dataset was analysed using an automatic classification system. The results highlighted a predominance of policy issues during both the pre- campaign and campaign, except for the two televised debates, during which campaign issues were the most prevalent. On the election night, users commented much more on political issues. Finally, the kind of issue most likely to be retweeted was policy issues., This research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, with
Grants CSO2013-43960-R (Los flujos de comunicación en los procesos de movilización política: medios, blogs y líderes de opinión) and CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R (Estrategias, agendas y
discursos en las cibercampañas electorales: medios de comunicación y ciudadanos).

[EN] This study analyses appearances by political candidates on infotainment television, as well as the emotional response elicited by these appearances among Twitter users during the pre-campaign season for Spain¿s 2015 General Elections. To that end, we first perform a qualitative analysis of the register and the tone of the interviews. Then, we use the SentiStrength algorithm, optimized for the specific context of our research, to analyse the sentiment of the tweets published during the airing of the programs. This multimethod approach allows us to determine the level of interaction between two distinct but complementary communication rationales. Among other things, we conclude that the political candidates do not always benefit from appearing on entertainment programs. Nonetheless, the sentiment of tweets may still be positive, regardless of the outcome of the candidate¿s appearance.

[EN] During election campaigns, candidates, parties, and media share their relevance on Twitter with a group of especially active users, aligned with a particular party. This paper introduces the profile of ¿party evangelists,¿ and explores the activity and effects these users had on the general political conversation during the 2015 Spanish general election. On that occasion, the electoral expectations were uncertain for the two major parties (PP and PSOE) because of the rise of two emerging parties that were disrupting the political status quo (Podemos and Ciudadanos). This was an ideal situation to assess the differences between the evangelists of established and emerging parties. The paper evaluates two aspects of the political conversation based on a corpus of 8.9 million tweets: the retweet- ing effectiveness, and the sentiment analysis of the overall conver- sation. We found that one of the emerging party¿s evangelists dominated message dissemination to a much greater extent., The present research was supported by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad [CSO2013-43960-R] [CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R]. The present research was supported by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Spain, under Grants CSO2013-43960-R ("2015-2016 Spanish political parties' online campaign strategies") and CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R ("Strategies, agendas and discourse in electoral cybercampaigns: media and citizens"). This work was possible thanks to help received from Emilio Giner in his task of extracting the corpus of tweets and from assistance provided by Mike Thelwall and David Vilares in the use of the SentiStrength application. We have benefited from valuable comments on drafts of this article from professors Joaquín Aldás, Amparo Baviera-Puig, Guillermo López-García, and especially Lidia Valera-Ordaz.

[EN] As fake news elicits an emotional response from users, whose attention is then monetised, political advertising has a significant influence on its production and dissemination. Facebook ads, therefore, have an essential role in contemporary political communication, not only because of their extensive use in international political campaigns, but also because they address intriguing questions about the regulation of disinformation on social networking sites. This research employs a corpus of 14,684 Facebook ads published by the major national political parties during their campaigns leading up to the two Spanish general elections held in 2019. A manual content analysis was performed on all the visually identical ads so as to identify those containing disinformation and those denouncing it. The topics addressed in these ads were then examined. The results show that the political parties' Facebook ad strategies were akin to those of conventional advertising. Disinformation messages were infrequent and mainly posted by Ciudadanos and VOX. Nonetheless, it is striking that the main topic addressed in the ads was the unity of Spain-precisely the issue of Catalonia's independence. In light of this, it can be deduced that 'traditional' parties are taking longer to renounce classical forms of campaigning than their 'new' counterparts, thus demonstrating that the actors implementing disinformation strategies are not only restricted to the extreme right of the ideological spectrum., This research has been carried out in the framework of the project entitled "Strategies, agendas and discourse in electoral cybercampaigns: media and citizens" (CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R), of the research group Mediaflows. The corresponding author would like to thank the Spanish National Employment Institute (SEPE) for the unemployment benefits that have made it possible to complete the manuscript in its last stage. Finally, the authors are grateful to Exponentia CIO Juan Besari for providing the appropriate hardware to carry out the Facebook ad extraction processes.

[EN] Sponsored content on Facebook has become an indispensable tool for implementing political campaign strategies. However, in political communication research, this channel is still unexplored due to its advertising model in which only target audiences are exposed to sponsored content. The launching of the Facebook Ad Library in May 2018 can be considered a turning point in this regard, inasmuch as it now offers users direct access to ads paid for by political parties, among other advertisers. This paper analyzes some aspects of the strategies implemented by six national parties during the campaigns running up to the two general elections held in Spain in 2019, by performing an analysis on a corpus of 14,684 ads downloaded directly from the Facebook Ad Library. It also provides evidence of the different emphasis placed by the parties on sponsored content. For its part, an analysis of ad scheduling shows how the publishing of ads was stepped up as polling day approached, while also revealing the practice of posting political content way in advance of election campaigns., This research has been carried out in the framework of the project entitled "Strategies, agendas and discourse in electoral cybercampaigns: media and citizens" (CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R), of the research group Mediaflows

[EN] The participation of politicians in social media is increasingly necessary in order to gain visibility. However, the logic of content dissemination is very different from conventional media. In social media, building a broad and varied base of followers facilitates a greater impact of the message. This article analyses the influence of various individual factors of the candidates on two aspects of the process: variation in the number of followers and multiplatform presence. Both issues are assessed on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram in the context of three general elections held in Spain during the 2010s. The results show that the age and gender of the candidates, their frequency of publication and the position of power of their parties had little impact. On the other hand, the political trajectory of the candidates and the population size of their constituencies played a significant role, although this influence varies depending on the campaign and the social platform. The perspective of this study confirms those influencing factors that have stabilized over time and could predict future social media use more consistently., Este trabajo se enmarca en el proyecto CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R, financiado por el
Gobierno de España y vinculado al grupo de investigación Mediaflows.

[EN] Facebook's advertising platform provides political parties with an electoral tool that enables them to reach an extremely detailed audience. Unlike television, the sponsored content on Facebook is seen only by the targeted users. This opacity was an obstacle to political communications research until Facebook released advertiser-sponsored content in 2018. The company's new transparent policy included sharing metadata related to the cost and number of impressions the ads received. This research studies the content sponsored on Facebook by the five main national political parties in Spain during the two General Elections held in 2019. The research corpus consists of 14,684 Facebook ads. An extraction algorithm detected the key terms in the text-based messages conveyed in the ad. The prominence of these topics was estimated from the aggregate number of impressions accumulated by each term. Different content patterns were assessed following three categories: user mobilization, candidate presence, and ideological issues. PSOE and PP positioned themselves more toward calls to action. Podemos had the greater number of issues related to policy among the most salient topics in its advertising. Ciudadanos' strategy focused more on its candidate and mobilization. Vox sponsored few Facebook ads, and they barely included policy issues. Spain was a highly prominent term in all parties¿ campaigns. Ciudadanos shared the middle ground on the ideological axis: they promoted social issues more aligned with left-wing parties as well as economic topics usually advocated by the right-wing. Overall, our results point to a greater emphasis on candidates rather than issues., This research has been carried out in the framework of the project entitled ¿Strategies, agendas and discourse in electoral cybercampaigns: media and citizens¿ (CSO2016-77331-C2-1-R), which was promoted by Universitat de València¿s research group Mediaflows. The authors are grateful to Exponentia CIO Juan Besari for helping in the web crawling process.

A deepfake is a hyper-realistic video, digitally manipulated to represent people saying or doing things that never really happened. With the sophistication of techniques for developing these counterfeits, it is becoming increasingly difficult to detect whether public appearances or statements by influential people respond to parameters of reality or, on the contrary, are the result of fictitious representations. These synthetic documents, generated by computerized techniques based on Artificial Intelligence (AI), pose serious threats to privacy, in a new scenario in which the risks derived from identity theft are increasing. This study aims to advance the state of the art through the analysis of academic news and through an exhaustive literature review, seeking answers to the following questions, which we understand to be of general interest, from both an economic and a social perspective and in various areas of research. What are deepfakes? Who produces them and what technology supports them? What opportunities do they present? What risks are associated with them? What methods exist to combat them? And framing the study in terms of information theory: is this a revolution or an evolution of fake news? As we know, fake news influences public opinion and is effective in appealing to emotions and modifying behaviours. We can assume that these new audiovisual texts will be tremendously effective in undermining, even more if possible, the credibility of digital media, as well as accelerating the already evident exhaustion of critical thinking., Un deepfake o hipertrucatge és un vídeo hiperrealista manipulat digitalment per representar persones que diuen o fan coses que en realitat mai no van succeir. Aquestes representacions sintètiques, generades mitjançant tècniques informatitzades basades en intel·ligència artificial (IA), plantegen serioses amenaces per a la privacitat, en un nou escenari en el qual s'incrementen els riscos derivats de les suplantacions d'identitat. Amb la sofisticació de les tècniques per al desenvolupament de deepfakes, resulta cada vegada més complicat detectar si les aparicions públiques o declaracions de personatges influents responen a paràmetres reals o, per contra, són resultat de representacions fictícies. Aquest estudi té com a objectiu plantejar un estat de la qüestió a través de l'anàlisi de l'actualitat acadèmica i mitjançant una exhaustiva revisió bibliogràfica. En el present treball es busca donar resposta a les qüestions que plantegem a continuació, que entenem d'interès general, tant en un vessant econòmic i social com en diverses àrees de recerca: què són els deepfakes?, qui els produeix i quina tecnologia els dona suport?, quines oportunitats plantegen?, quins riscos s'associen a aquests documents multimèdia?, quins mètodes existeixen per combatre aquestes falsificacions? I emmarcant l'estudi en l'àmbit de la teoria de la informació: es tracta d'una revolució o d'una evolució de les fake news? Com sabem, les notícies falses influeixen en l'opinió pública i són efectives a l'hora d'apel·lar emocions i modificar comportaments. Podem assumir que aquests nous textos audiovisuals seran tremendament eficaços a l'hora de minar, més si fos possible, la credibilitat dels mitjans digitals, així com d'accelerar el ja evident esgotament del pensament crític., Un deepfake o ultrafalso es un vídeo hiperrealista manipulado digitalmente para representar a personas que dicen o hacen cosas que en realidad nunca sucedieron. Estas representaciones sintéticas, generadas mediante técnicas computarizadas basadas en inteligencia artificial (IA), plantean serias amenazas para la privacidad, en un nuevo escenario en el que se incrementan los riesgos derivados de las suplantaciones de identidad. Con la sofisticación de las técnicas para el desarrollo de deepfakes, resulta cada vez más complicado detectar si las apariciones públicas o declaraciones de personajes influyentes responden a parámetros de realidad o, por el contrario, son resultado de representaciones ficticias. Este estudio tiene como objetivo plantear un estado de la cuestión a través del análisis de la actualidad académica y mediante una exhaustiva revisión bibliográfica. En el presente trabajo se busca dar respuesta a las cuestiones que planteamos a continuación, que entendemos de interés general, tanto en una vertiente económica y social como en diversas áreas de investigación: ¿qué son los deepfakes?, ¿quién los produce y qué tecnología los respalda?, ¿qué oportunidades plantean?, ¿qué riesgos se asocian a estos documentos multimedia?, ¿qué métodos existen para combatir estas falsificaciones? Y enmarcando el estudio en el ámbito de la teoría de la información: ¿se trata de una revolución o de una evolución de las fake news? Como sabemos, las noticias falsas influyen en la opinión pública y son efectivas a la hora de apelar a emociones y modificar comportamientos. Podemos asumir que estos nuevos textos audiovisuales serán tremendamente eficaces a la hora de minar, más si cabe, la credibilidad de los medios digitales, así como de acelerar el ya evidente agotamiento del pensamiento crítico.