BUSCADOR RECOLECTA

Incluye material complementario, From the invention of the steam engine to the present, water has represented a significant input to the energy system, although this has been mostly ignored in the literature. In Spain, the most arid country in Europe, studies about water footprint typically just consider domestic, agricultural and industrial water uses, but water requirements for the electricity sector are omitted despite our dependence on thermal
power. It has been demonstrated that for each available cooling technology, nuclear needs and consumption of water tend to be larger per MWh generated. We calculate a first approximation to the Spanish nuclear water footprint from 1969 to 2015. Our results show that while water consumed by Spanish nuclear power plants are around 3 m3 per capita/year, water withdrawals per capita/year are around 70 m3. Moreover, our analysis allows extracting conclusions focusing on a River Basins approach. What is the water impact of our nuclear power plants? Will water limit our energy future? These are some of the issues at stake., The Spanish Government through MINECO research project reference
HAR2014-53825-R made available the funds for this research.
The first author also benefits from a research contract from Spanish
Government through MINECO reference BES-2015-074128.

Póster presentado en el Día Mundial del Agua. Centro de Documentación del Agua y el Medioambiente, Zaragoza, 2019., Objetivo: hacer una primera estimación de las necesidades hídricas de las centrales nucleares españolas desde 1969 hasta 2014. El objetivo es, por tanto, calcular el uso consuntivo del agua (la cantidad de agua evaporada, transpirada o incorporada a la producción de energía) por las centrales nucleares españolas, así como la cantidad total de agua extraída y necesaria para el funcionamiento de las centrales nucleares., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación (ref. BES-2015-074128).

The Energy Mix Concentration Index (EMCI)is a quantitative indicator of concentration of the energy mix based upon the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index. We use the EMCI to compare the evolution of the diversification (versus concentration)of energy mixes in the long-term in order to reveal the transformations of the energy structures which determine energy transitions. In this methodological paper we make explicit how to aggregate the energy sources in order to calculate the EMCI, including questions of detail such us the level of aggregation and the transformation of primary electricity to add it up to total consumption. We present alternative figures that illustrate some additional aspects of the relation of the EMCI to total consumption, consumption per capita and energy annual growth. We also show the sensitivity of the indicator to alternative specifications (with and without pre-modern energy sources)and alternative data sets, proving its robustness. Indicate how to aggregate energy carriers in the calculation of a quantitative index of concentration of the energy mix. Compare alternative specifications (with or without pre-modern energy carriers). EMCI focus on the major energy sources in the energy systems., This research was supported by the National Program of R+D+i Projects of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Refs.: HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R (AEI/FEDER, UE)).

We analysed the process of construction and connection to the electrical grid of four Spanish nuclear power plants with different financial and technological foreign partners: those of Zorita (PWR by Westinghouse), Garoña (BWR by General Electric) and Vandellós I (GCR by EDF) (belonging to the first generation of atomic plants and producing electricity from 1969–72) and that of Trillo I (PWR by KWU, connected in 1988). These four examples allow us to observe how the learning curve of nuclear engineering and the acquisition of skills by Spanish companies evolved. Progressively the domestic industry achieved higher levels of participation, fostered by the Ministry of Industry and Energy. When the atomic plants under construction were paralysed by the nuclear moratorium of 1984, and several other projects were abandoned by the utilities along the way, Spain had developed an industrial sector around the fabrication of service components and engineering for nuclear power plants to compete internationally., The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the Spanish Government through research grants HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. Additionally, Rubio-Varas and De la Torre received funding from the Euratom research and training programme 2014–2018 under grant agreement N°662268.

This article has been published in a revised form in Business History Review, 92 (Spring 2018): 29–55, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007680518000053. This version is free to view and download for private research and study only. Not for re-distribution, re-sale or use in derivative works. © The President and Fellows of Harvard College 2018., In the nuclear sector, turnkey projects can be considered an investment in obtaining information through “learning by doing” to capture rents from the next generation of reactors. As the first U.S. turnkey export project, the first Spanish nuclear power plant served that purpose and paved the way to the subsequent growth of the nuclear sector, for both Spanish and U.S. firms. Making use of archival material, we analyse the networks created by the government, experts, and business leaders, which sought to obtain, accumulate, and learn from the scarce and conflicting information about atomic technology that was available at the time. We also discern how firms on both sides of the Atlantic acquired and perfected the specific capabilities required to build a commercial nuclear reactor., Funds for this research were made available by the
Spanish government through Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) research
project reference HAR2014-53825-R.

Póster presentado a las 3ª Jornadas Doctorales del Campus Iberus. Jaca, 2016., Objectives: our research pioneers a first approximation to the water footprint of the Spanish nuclear power plants operating with freshwater from 1969 to the present. Our aim is to calculate the consumptive use of water (i.e. the amount of water evaporated, transpired, or incorporated in energy production) for Spanish nuclear power plants, and the amounts of water withdrawals required for running nuclear power plants. To sum up, what is the water impact of our nuclear power plants? Will water limit our energy future? Should water be considered when planning the electricity mix in the future? These are some of the questions to solve., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación (ref. BES-2015-074128).

© IWA Publishing 2019. The definitive peer-reviewed and edited version of this article is published in Water Policy 21 (2): 382-393. DOI 10.2166/wp.2019.081 and is available at www.iwapublishing.com.”, This paper focuses on the fact that the water–energy nexus remains an irrelevant issue on the energy policy agenda and on the priorities of the energy leaders in Spain. This is a striking fact given that this takes place in the most arid country in Europe, where almost two-thirds of electricity generation would have to be halted in the absence of an adequate water supply. We contend that part of the explanation may lie in the lack of official statistics and inconsistent sources of information on the water–energy nexus in Spain. To illustrate this point, we provide examples of the uneven data available for one of the most intensive freshwater users in the thermoelectric sector in Spain: nuclear power plants. Our research demonstrates the need for improved indicators as policy instruments in the water–energy nexus in Spain since it is impossible to improve what cannot be measured., This work was supported by the Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects reference
HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. The first author also benefits from a research contract
with the Spanish Government through the MINECO reference BES-2015-074128. We appreciate the
helpful comments and suggestions received by the three anonymous reviewers.

Póster presentado en el Día Mundial del Agua. Centro de Documentación del Agua y el Medioambiente, Zaragoza, 2019., Trabajo en el que se aborda la mutua dependencia agua-energía y el agua como fuente de producción eléctrica, Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación predoctoral (ref. BES-2015-074128)

Water is essential for almost all energy processes. This paper analyses the evolution of
the cooling water needs of thermal power plants in the Ebro River basin, the largest contributor to
the Spanish electricity grid, over the period 1969–2015. It makes several contributions. First, the
cooling water needs for the plants are estimated. Second, these water requirements are compared to
other water-using activities in the region. Third, a long-term water-use efficiency analysis is carried
out. Finally, water-saving measures are proposed to counter possible future water scarcities. The
results show that thermoelectric water consumption per capita is around 7 m3/year. Estimated future
thermal power generation water withdrawals (around 500 m3 per capita/year) might compromise
flows for other water uses in periods of drought., This research was supported by the Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects,
references HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. The author also benefits from a research contract from Spanish Government through MINECO reference BES-2015-074128.

Esta tesis es un compendio de tres trabajos finalizados y publicados durante mi periodo como estudiante de doctorado. El primer trabajo muestra evidencia de la falta de estadísticas oficiales y la inconsistencia entre las diferentes fuentes de información que contienen información sobre las necesidades hídricas para producción de energía eléctrica de las centrales nucleares en España. La mejora de estos indicadores daría como resultado una mejor estimación de las necesidades de agua dulce para la generación de energía térmica y una mejor comprensión de esta problemática. El segundo artículo ofrece una estimación a largo plazo de las necesidades de agua dulce de las centrales nucleares españolas, las centrales más sedientas del sector termoeléctrico español, durante el período 1969-2014. El último artículo profundiza más en esta cuestión, analizando la evolución de los volúmenes de agua necesarios para producción de electricidad de las centrales nucleares y resto de térmicas convencionales ubicadas en la cuenca del Ebro, el mayor contribuyente a la generación eléctrica española. Todos estos resultados pretenden cubrir parte del vacío existente en la literatura española sobre el nexo agua-energía., This dissertation is a compendium of three papers completed and published during my time as PhD student. The first paper provides evidence on the lack of official statistics and the inconsistency among the sources of information related to water for nuclear power generation in Spain. The improvement of these indicators would result in a better estimation of the freshwater needs for thermal power generation and a better understanding of this matter. The second paper provides a long-term estimation of the freshwater volumes needed for the operation of Spanish nuclear power plants, the thirstiest power facilities within the Spanish thermoelectric sector, for the period 1969-2014. Finally, the last paper goes further and analyses the evolution of the cooling water needs of nuclear and conventional thermal power plants located in the Ebro River basin, the major contributor to the Spanish electricity generation. All these achievements aim to cover part of the existing gap in the Spanish literature on the water-energy nexus., Spanish Government through the MINECO research projects reference HAR2014-53825-R and HAR2017-86086-R. Research contract with the Spanish Government through the MINECO reference BES-2015-074128., Programa de Doctorado en Economía, Empresa y Derecho (RD 99/2011), Ekonomiako, Enpresako eta Zuzenbideko Doktoretza Programa (ED 99/2011)

Póster presentado en el Día Mundial del Agua. Centro de Documentación del Agua y el Medioambiente, Zaragoza, 2019., Este estudio evalúa las necesidades de agua para la generación de energía termoeléctrica en la Cuenca del Ebro. Mediante el cálculo de las demandas y consumos de agua para generación termoeléctrica en la región, este estudio profundiza en el conocimiento sobre el nexo agua-energía y cubre buena parte del vacío existente en la literatura sobre este tema en España., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación (ref. BES-2015-074128)

The authors propose a synthetic indicator that allows one to compare and contrast the evolution of the composition of the primary energy baskets of eight European countries over the last two centuries, and quantitatively analyze the degree of concentration (versus diversity) of their energy mixes throughout the period. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: section 2 explains the data sources and the methodology used based on concentration measures. The subsequent section focuses on the Energy Mix Concentration Index analysis and the results obtained. The article ends with a few concluding remarks., This research was supported by the National Program of R+D+i Projects of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Refs.: HAR2014-53825 and HAR2017-86086R).

We aim at analysing the role of engineers and scientists as agents of economic modernization in Spain, which at the time was an underdeveloped economy ruled by an authoritarian regime., The Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (project ref. HAR2014-53825-R) and the European Commission and Euratom research and training programme 2014–2018 (History of Nuclear Energy and Society (HoNESt), grant agreement N°662268) financed parts of the fieldwork required to compile sources for this chapter.

En 1972, Henry Kearns, presidente y director del Export-Import Bank de los Estados Unidos (Eximbank), visitó la Cámara Oficial de Comercio e Industria de Madrid. El título de su discurso'España – el cliente del billón de dólares del Eximbank' daba cuenta del importante papel que el banco público estadounidense jugaba en la financiación de las compras españolas de bienes de equipo, como aviones, fábricas de acero, estaciones satelitales y plantas eléctricas, entre otros. La concentración en nuevas instalaciones de generación eléctrica convertía a España en aquel momento en el país con el más rápido desarrollo de energía nuclear de Europa, y el mayor comprador de tecnología nuclear de los EE.UU. mano a mano con Japón. Ninguna otra nación se acercó a estos dos en ese sentido. Utilizando materiales de archivo del Eximbank y la Administración Nacional de Archivos y Registro de los Estados Unidos (NARA), exploramos las facilidades financieras que los EE.UU. proporcionaron al programa nuclear español, el tamaño de los créditos autorizados y su evolución en el tiempo. Se hace evidente que el bombeo de dinero público norteamericano para la exportación de las instalaciones nucleares en el mundo explica en gran medida el cuasimonopolio del mercado nuclear mundial que los EE.UU. tuvieron antes de la década de 1980, y en particular su importancia para convertir a España en uno de los pioneros y líder en la adopción de la tecnología nuclear., In 1972, Henry Kearns, President and Chairman, Export-Import Bank of the United States (Eximbank) visited the Official Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Madrid. The title of his speech 'Spain—Eximbank’s Billion Dollar Client' gave notice of the important role that the public American bank had for financing the Spanish purchases of capital equipment: aircrafts, steel mills, satellite grown stations, power plants, etc. The heavy concentration on new power facilities at the time made Spain the fastest growing nuclear power developer in Europe, and the largest nuclear power buyer from the US with Eximbank’s support head-to-head with Japan. No other nation approached these two in that respect.
Investigating archival materials from the Eximbank and the National Archives and Record Administration of the United States (NARA), we explore the financial facilities the US provided to the Spanish nuclear program, the size of the authorised credits and its evolution over time. It became apparent that the role of the US in pumping public money for exporting nuclear facilities to the world explain a great deal of the US quasi-monopoly of global nuclear market before the 1980s, and in particular for turning Spain into an early adopter and champion adopter of nuclear technology., Financial support from the Bank of Spain (grant agreement 30/6/2012) and the Spanish Ministry of Economics and Competitiveness (project ref.: HAR2014-53825-R) is dully acknowledged.

Este artículo explora los procesos de aprendizaje y de transferencia tecnológica que situaron
a España entre los firstcomers de la energía nuclear a finales de los años sesenta. Se trata
de un ejemplo de industria naciente que, bajo la protección del Estado y la acción de los consorcios
empresariales y de las multinacionales norteamericanas, fue capaz de replicar un reto
tecnológico complejo. Analizamos cómo se fue creando un ecosistema empresarial en el que
fue clave el liderazgo de algunos ingenieros y la cooperación y competencia entre industrias,
ingenierías y consultoras. La historia empresarial de las centrales nucleares de Zorita y Garoña
ejemplifica un modelo de learning by doing que, a través de los contratos 'llave en mano',
permitieron un rápido crecimiento del sector, convenciendo al gobierno de la dictadura y a los
promotores eléctricos de que era posible llevar a cabo uno de los programas nucleares más ambiciosos
de la Europa occidental., This article explores the learning and technology transfer processes that placed Spain among the firstcomers of nuclear energy in the late 1960s. It is an example of a infantindustry that, under the protection of the State and the action of the business consortiums and of the North American multinationals, was able to replicate a complex technological challenge. We analyzed how an entrepreneurial ecosystem was created in which the leadership of some engineers and the cooperation and competition between industries, engineering and consultants were key. The business history of the Zorita and Garoña nuclear power plants exemplifies a model of learning by doing that, through turnkey contracts, allowed a rapid growth of the sector, convincing the dictatorship government and the electric promoters that it was possible to carry out one of the most ambitious nuclear programs in Western Europe., Este trabajo se ha beneficiado de la financiación de los proyectos del MCCIN HAR2014-53825-R y HAR 2017-86086-R.

Póster presentado al 18th World Economic History Conference. Boston (EE. UU.), 2018., Objectives: this ongoing work is part of a more extensive doctoral thesis which aims to provide an estimate of water needs for thermoelectric production in Spain covering the entire electrical history from 1900 to the present. In this context, this paper seeks to highlight the main role of water within the Spanish history, observing how water management and institutions in Spain have changed over the long term to understand the causes of water conflicts, and finally, focusing on all those possible conflicts rarely discussed in the literature., Proyectos de investigación MINECO (refs. HAR2014-53825-R y HAR2017-86086-R). Contrato de investigación pre-doctoral (ref. BES-2015-074128).