BUSCADOR RECOLECTA

The implementation of L2-medium education, exemplified by Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), is becoming increasingly popular in primary schools (García Mayo, 2021). While previous research highlights CLIL's positive impact on linguistic competence (Jiménez-Catalán & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2009), differences in linguistic achievement are often associated with varying exposure hours (Pladevall-Ballester & Vallbona, 2016). Despite CLIL's growing popularity, studies examining linguistic achievement in varying-intensity CLIL programs remain scant. We address this gap by comparing low and high-intensity CLIL programs, alongside a standard English as a foreign language (EFL) program in primary schools. Focused on 11-year-olds' receptive skills, our results show that high-intensity programs significantly enhance proficiency in listening and reading when compared to their lower-intensity counterparts. Distinctions between low-intensity and EFL programs are non-significant. These findings underscore the critical role of the intensity of exposure in shaping the effectiveness of CLIL programs and contribute insights for refining CLIL program design guidelines., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [grant number PID2020-113990GB-I00], State Research Agency (AEI) 01/09/2021-31/08/2025, and the Public University of Navarra [grant number PJUPNA05-2022].

Although multiple factors influence language proficiency in instructed settings, the prevalence of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) research in recent decades has placed intensity of exposure (via CLIL lessons) at center stage, sidelining other variables. This study aims to rectify this by examining the impact of CLIL alongside three additional factors: extramural English (EE), socioeconomic status (SES), and non-verbal intelligence (NVI). Specifically, this study analyses the interplay of these variables in the proficiency of 171 young English learners (aged 10-11 years) in Navarre, Spain. The participants were divided into a low-intensity (LI) (n = 54) group and a high-intensity (HI) (n = 117) group depending on exposure to English in school. Results indicate that HI learners are superior in reading, and even more clearly in speaking. EE is very frequent in both groups but more abundant among HI learners, and it shows several positive associations with learners¿ scores. Higher NVI levels positively correlate with all skills in both groups, except for speaking, which appears to be affected by EE and, to a lesser extent, by SES., The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [grant number PID2020-113990GB-I00, State Research Agency (AEI).

Preliminary studies suggest a positive effect of Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) on young learners' (YLs) L2 motivation. However, much more
research with larger samples is is necessary to gain a more detailed understanding of
the interaction between CLIL exposure and L2 motivation. This study specifically
explores the effect of different levels of CLIL exposure on YLs’ L2 motivation. To do so,
five measures of motivation were analysed in 895 L1-Spanish YLs of English (mean age=
10.61) comprising a non-CLIL group (n=289) who had received five EFL weekly lessons;
a low-CLIL group (n =152) who had received five EFL and two CLIL weekly lessons, and a
high-CLIL group (n =454) who had received five EFL and seven CLIL weekly lessons.
Normality, Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn-Bonferroni post-hoc tests were conducted. The
results revealed significantly higher motivation levels for the high-CLIL learners over the
low-CLIL group in all five measures, and higher motivational levels of the high-CLIL group
over the non-CLIL group in four of the measures. The study provides evidence of the
motivational benefits of high-CLIL exposure and underscores the need for further
research on the motivational implications of low-CLIL programmes., This work was supported by Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation (grant no. PID2020-113990GB-100) and Public University of Navarra (grant nos. PJUPNA05-2022; PJUPNA2023-11401).

Research involving secondary school EFL learners has demonstrated that greater intensity of exposure, via CLIL lessons, yields notable benefits. However, studies in primary school are scarce and less optimistic. Furthermore, little is known about the effects of different degrees of CLIL intensity and of learners' exposure to Extramural English (EE) through formal or informal out-of-school activities. To address these gaps, this study examines the impact of CLIL and EE on the proficiency of 180 primary school learners of English (aged 10-11 years) divided into a high-CLIL (N = 78), a low-CLIL (N = 56), and a non-CLIL (N = 46) group. Results showed some advantages among high-CLIL learners, including higher scores and less intragroup variability, while no significant differences were observed between low-CLIL and non-CLIL learners. EE activities were common, with several weak but positive correlations found between EE and proficiency, particularly involving watching TV and reading, and mainly affecting non-CLIL learners., This work was supported by the Spanish MICIU (Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades) and AEI (Agencia Estatal de Investigación) (grant number MCIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033). The author gratefully acknowledges funding from research grant PID2020-113990GB-I00, provided by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.
Open Access funding provided by Universidad Publica de Navarra.

Research evidence predominantly based on studies with older learners suggests that Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) instruction yields significant language gains when exposure exceeds 300 hours (Muñoz, 2015). However, the impact of high-intensity CLIL on young learners' oral proficiency remains underexplored. This study examined fluency, pronunciation, and productive vocabulary measures in young L1-Spanish learners (mean age = 10.46) across four groups: non-CLIL (n = 23), low-CLIL (n = 21), high-CLIL (n = 32), and a younger high-CLIL group (n = 32; mean age = 9.84) with 0, 707, 2473, and 2164 CLIL hours, respectively. Socioeconomic status and extramural exposure were controlled. Intraclass correlations, Kruskal-Wallis, post-hoc, and Friedman tests were conducted. Significant advantages were limited to both high-CLIL groups over the non-CLIL group at the vocabulary level, providing policymakers with empirical evidence about the markedly different outcomes of high, and low-CLIL programmes in relation to oral gains with young learners., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation [grant PID2020-113990GB-I00], and by the Public University of Navarra [grants PJUPNA05-2022 and PJUPNA2023-11401].

The purported foreign language gains of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) over traditional EFL (English as a foreign language) programs with young learners are still unclear. Specifically, little is known about how CLIL time and timing impact grammatical complexity. Additionally, mediating factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and extramural exposure have been rarely controlled in the existing literature. This study analysed grammatical complexity in four groups of young learners in Spain (n = 108) during an oral task. The sample comprised: (1) an EFL-only group (1,766 EFL hours), (2) a low-exposure CLIL group (1,766 EFL hours + 707 CLIL hours), (3) a high-exposure CLIL group (1,766 EFL hours + 2,473 CLIL hours), and (4) a younger high-exposure CLIL group (1,545 EFL hours + 2,164 CLIL hours). All groups were matched for SES and extramural exposure. The analysis included independent ratings and computational measures of overall sentence complexity, subordination, and coordination. Distribution, Kruskal¿Wallis and post-hoc tests were conducted. Results showed significant differences in favour of the high-exposure groups over the EFL-only group in the ratings and in two of the computational measures: overall sentence complexity and subordination. This evidence highlights the potential of high-exposure CLIL to supplement grammatical instruction in EFL programs. Our results also suggest that the comparatively higher exposure of the younger high-exposure CLIL group has the potential to override the one-year cognitive advantage of the older, EFL-only learners., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation [grant number PID2020-113990GB-I00], and by the Public University of Navarra [grant numbers PJUPNA05-2022; PJUPNA2023-11401].

Reading comprehension is crucial in education, serving as the foundation for acquiring knowledge.
In multilingual settings, children must develop these skills in multiple languages. However,
there is limited understanding of comprehension levels across languages and of the role of
influencing factors such as language exposure, non-verbal intelligence (NVI), socioeconomic
status (SES), and extramural reading (ER). This study explores how these variables impact the
reading comprehension of young learners (aged 10–11) in English (foreign language), Spanish
(main language), and Basque (regional language for Basque-immersion participants). The participants
were divided into a high-intensity (HI) group (N = 118) and a low-intensity (LI) group
(N = 81) within Basque-immersion programs. Results showed correlations among reading
comprehension scores in Spanish, English, and Basque. While both groups demonstrated similar
Spanish comprehension levels, the HI group excelled in English, particularly among high-NVI
learners. LI learners scored lower in Basque compared to Spanish. Regression analyses indicated
that NVI and, to a lesser extent, SES influenced reading comprehension across languages.
Also, HI learners engaged more in English ER, whereas LI learners favored Basque. However, ER
did not have a significant impact on their reading scores. Based on these findings, pedagogical
implications for multilingual education contexts will be discussed., This work was supported by the Spanish MICIU (Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades) and AEI (Agencia Estatal de Investigacion) (grant number PID2020-113990GB-I00).