This dataset was used to analyze survival probabilities of adult Audouin’s gull depending on early conditions (density-dependence and Winter NAO) experienced by the individuals., Capture mark recapture data of Audouin gulls breeding from 1995 until 2009 in Mediterranean locations including Ebro Delta, Chafarinas Islands,
Columbretes Islands and Mallorca islets in the Balearic Islands. Individuals are shown in rows and years in columns followed by the cohort on which they were born, and the environmental covariates associated to that year. This data set has been used for the publication: Payo-Payo, A.; Sanz-Aguilar, A. and Oro, D. (2022) Long-lasting effects of harsh early-life conditions on adult survival of a long-lived vertebrate. OIKOS., We acknowledge financial support through projects RESET (CGL2017-85210-P), IBISES (ref. CGL2013-42203-R) and MINOW (ref. H2020- 634495)., This work was funded through projects RESET (CGL2017-85210-P) and IBISES (ref. CGL2013-42203-R).
APP was supported by a predoctoral fellowship of the Ministry of Education (FPU-AP 2012-0869).
ASA is supported by a postdoctoral contract co-funded by the Regional Government of the Balearic Islands and the European Social Fund (ref. PD/003/2016) and a Ramón y Cajal fellowship ( Ref. RYC-2017- 22796)., The data file contains resight histories of Audouin’s gulls born at Ebro Delta and observed during breeding seasons 1995 to 2009. This file contains one line per individual; one column per encounter occasion (from column 1 to 15 were code 1 indicate resight at Ebro Delta colony and code 2 resight at other colony); one line indicating the number of individual capture histories (column 16); and three further columns indicating the standardized values of early life individual covariates (columns 17, 18, and 19; for DD, WNAO, and DD*WNAO, respectively)., No

The data file contains data on Canary Island date palms Phoenix canariensis located in public gardens within Palma city and monitored between 2011 and 2017. We coded yearly observations on each palm (first seven columns on the excel file) into individual histories using the four following codes: 1 = palm tree apparently healthy (i.e. with no signs of weevil infestation); 2 = palm tree infested by red palm weevil and treated with a partial pruning (i.e. curative treatment); 3 = palm tree infested by red palm weevil and treated with a total cut (i.e. destructive treatment);0 = palm tree that no longer exist due to a destructive treatment applied the previous year. Columns 8 to 15 indicate the individual covariates used as linear predictors of infestation probabilities: the number of palms (P. canariensis and P. dactylifera) within a 500 m radius from each palm monitored. We sorted palms into public (“public”, i.e. those directly managed by the city council) and private (“priv”), differentiating in this last case between palms under the responsibility of other governmental entities (e.g. schools, namely “ent”) and those belonging to particular owners in private areas (e.g. hotels or other private gardens, namely “part”)., This dataset was used to analyze the infestation probabilities of Canary Island date palms by Red palm weevils., We acknowledge financial support through projects ‘Vicenç Mut’ PD/003/2016 and Ramón y Cajal RYC-2017- 22796., Peer reviewed

Survival is a key parameter in species' management and conservation. Most methods for estimating survival require time series data, large sample sizes and, overall, costly monitoring efforts. Inverse modeling approaches can be less data hungry, however they are underused in conservation sciences. Here we present an inverse modeling approach for estimating relative survival rates of long-lived species that is mathematically straightforward and evaluate its performance under constraints common in conservation studies related to small sample sizes. Specifically, we (i) estimated the relative survival rates in a Testudo graeca population based on one-year monitoring, (ii) assessed the impact of sample size on the accuracy, and (iii) tested alternative hypotheses on the impact of fire on the survival rates. We then compared the results of our approach with capture-recapture (CRC) estimates based on long-term monitoring. Our approach (153 individuals within a single year) yielded estimates of survival rates overlapping those of CRC estimates (11 years of data and 1009 individuals) for adults and subadults, but not for juveniles. Simulation experiments showed that our method provides robust estimates if sample size is above 100 individuals. The best models describing the impact of fire on survival identified by our approach predicts a decrease in survival especially in hatchlings and juvenile individuals, similar to CRC estimates. Our work proves that inverse modeling can decrease the cost for estimating demographic rates, especially for long-lived species and as such, its use should be encouraged in conservation and management sciences., The Spanish Ministry of Science and European Regional Development Fund funded this work through Projects CGL2012-33536 and CGL2015-64144-R; MINECIO/FEDER). RCRC was supported by the Regional Government of the Community of Valencia (ACIF/2010/ 133). ASA was supported by a Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC-2017-22796) co-funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Fund. KvB was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) - Projektnummer 316099922 - TRR 212., Peer reviewed

[Background] Poaching is a prominent source of 'hidden hurdles', cryptic impacts of human activities that may hinder the conservation of animal populations. Estimating poaching mortality is challenging, as the evidence for illegal killing is not outwardly obvious. Using resighting and recovery data collected on 141 marked red deer Cervus elaphus within the Stelvio National Park (central Italian Alps), we show how multievent models allow to assess the direct impacts of illegal harvesting on age- A nd sex-specific survival, accounting for uncertainty over mortality causes., [Results] Mortality caused by poaching was consistently higher for males than for females in all age classes. In males, the probability of dying from poaching was higher for extreme age classes, while in females all age classes showed fairly similar values of poaching mortality. The strong bias in sex-specific poaching mortality was possibly due to trophy killing in adult males and 'bushmeat-like' killing for private or commercial gain in young males and in females., [Conclusions] A robust assessment of age- A nd sex-specific prevalence of poaching in wildlife populations is pivotal when illegal killing is of conservation concern. This provides timely information on what segment of the population is most likely to be affected. Besides obvious demographic consequences on small populations, age- A nd sex-biased poaching prevalence may contrast with the need to maintain ecosystem complexity and may alter behavioral responses to human presence. The information provided by multievent models, whose flexibility makes them adaptable to many systems where individual-based data is part of population monitoring, offers a support to design appropriate strategies for the conservation of wildlife populations., To conduct the research leading to these results, LC has received funding from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under REA grant agreement n° [609305]. ASA was supported by a Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC-2017- 22796) co-funded by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Fund (“El Fondo Social Europeo invierte en tu futuro”). The article processing charge was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the University of Freiburg in the funding programme Open Access Publishing.

Ticks can negatively affect their host by direct effects as blood feeding causing anaemia or discomfort, or by pathogen transmission. Consequently, ticks can have an important role in the population dynamics of their hosts. However, specific studies on the demographic effects of tick infestation on seabirds are still scarce. Seabird ticks have also the potential to be responsible for the circulation of little known tick-borne agents, which could have implications for non-seabird species. Here, we report the results of investigations on potential associations between soft tick Ornithodoros maritimus load and reproductive parameters of storm petrels Hydrobates pelagicus breeding in a large colony in a cave of Espartar Island, in the Balearic archipelago. We also investigated by molecular analyses the potential viral and bacterial pathogens associated with O. maritimus ticks present at the colony. Lower nestling survival was recorded in the most infested area, deep in the cave, compared to the area near the entrance. The parasite load was negatively associated with the body condition of the nestlings. One pool of ticks tested positive for West Nile virus and 4 pools tested positive for a Borrelia species which was determined by targeted nested PCR to have a 99% sequence identity with B. turicatae, a relapsing fever Borrelia. Overall, these results show that further investigations are needed to better understand the ecology and epidemiology of the interactions between ticks, pathogens and Procellariiform species., This Project was partially funded by the Govern Balear (Acciones Especiales, AAEE031/2017) and the Spanish Ministry of Innovation and Universities (RESET, ref: CGL2017-85210-P). ASA was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Innovation and Universities Innovation and Universities, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Found (RYC-2017- 22796)., Peer reviewed

Events of non-natural mortality in human-dominated landscapes are especially challenging for populations of large vertebrates with K strategies. Among birds, vultures are one of the most threatened groups experiencing sharp population declines due to non-natural mortality. Factors causing non-natural mortality are usually studied separately. However, the potential use of an integrated index able to predict large-scale mortality risks of avian scavengers could be especially useful for planning conservation strategies. Here, we used the Human Footprint index to examine the impact of landscape anthropization on the survival rates of 66 GPS-tagged adult Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in two Spanish regions. Foraging in more anthropized areas resulted in a significantly higher individual mortality risk mainly due to collisions with vehicles, poisonings, electrocutions and fatalities with wind turbines. Mean yearly survival rates were estimated at 0.817 ± 0.043 SE and 0.968 ± 0.018 SE for individuals from the more and less anthropized regions, respectively. Additional research should investigate whether some vulture populations could be acting as sinks unnoticed due to metapopulation dynamics. From a broader point of view, our study shows that a straightforward Human Footprint was a useful index to predict the survival of top scavengers and can be highly applicable to planning large-scale conservation measures., This research was funded by the Project RNM-1925 (Junta de Andalucía), the Project CGL2015-66966-C2-1-2-R (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and EU/ERDF) and the Project RTI2018-099609-B-C21 (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and EU/ERDF). “Roads Less Travelled” project (DiversEarth, Trashumancia y Naturaleza and Yolda Initiative) also contributed to this research. EA was supported by La Caixa-Severo Ochoa International PhD Program 2015. ASA and ACA by a post-doctoral contract Viçent Mut (PD/003/2016 and PD/039/2017, respectiely) co-funded by the Govern Balear and European Social Funds. ASA was also supported by a Spanish Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC-2017-22796) funded by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Found. JMPG was supported by a Juan de la Cierva research contract (FJCI-2015-25632)., Peer reviewed

Technological advances such as camera traps, and citizen science, coupled with advanced quantitative approaches, can help fill existing knowledge gaps and aid effective conservation.

We combine citizen and camera trap observations to estimate survival of the Endangered lappet-faced vulture, assess the relative contribution of data from camera traps and citizens, as well as impact of loss of individual marks (wing tags), on survival estimates.

We used data from 762 lappet-faced vultures wing tagged as nestlings during 2006–2017 in western Namibia. Observations of wing tagged individuals were provided by citizens or via camera traps. We formulated a multievent capture-mark-recapture model to estimate survival while accounting for probabilities of resighting by citizens and/or camera traps, recovery of dead individuals, and loss of the wing tag.

Survival was relatively high for juveniles (0.79), and increased with age to 0.95. Citizen observations of live and dead birds were low in number. However, when combined with camera trap resightings of live individuals, citizen observations increased the precision of survival estimates of birds older than one year compared to using data from either sources separately. Wing tag loss was high after 5–6 years of tag age. If neglected, tag loss can result in severe underestimation of survival of the older age classes.

Overall, we show that filling ecological knowledge gaps is possible through the efficient use of data provided by different sources, and by applying state-of the art approaches that minimise potential biases, such as those due to tag loss., AS thanks Academy of Finland (grant n. 307909). VMP was funded by Academy of Finland (278759) and the Finnish Cultural Foundation. ASA was supported by a Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC-2017-22796) funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Fund.

A common complication in invasive pest management is that the infectious state of the host can be wrongly assessed, leading to biases in the estimation of the prevalence of the pest and on the efficacy of mitigation actions. We designed a multievent model that accommodates uncertainty on host state to investigate the dynamics of the infestation of Phoenix canariensis by the invasive Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. Since 2011, the council of Palma city (Mallorca Island, Spain) applied preventive, curative and destructive treatments to public Phoenix palms. A year later awareness campaigns focused on every palm owner in an attempt to control the plague. We estimated the probability of infestation and assessed the efficiency of mitigation measures, awareness campaigns and palm-dependent covariates. Our results show that infestation probabilities were higher for palms infested in the previous year than for healthy palms and it decreased substantially over time as a results of mitigation measures and awareness campaigns. Palms surrounded by treated palms had a lower probability of being infested than palms surrounded by untreated palms, i.e. private palms before awareness campaigns implementation. Our results highlight the key role of awareness campaigns and public participation for invasive species control., A.S.A. was supported by a ‘Vicenç Mut’ contract co-funded by the Regional Government of the Balearic Islands and the European Social Fund (PD/003/2016) and a Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC-2017- 22796) funded by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Found (“El Fondo Social Europeo invierte en tu futuro”).

Identifying key evolutionary strategies that support population persistence remains a challenging task for biodiversity conservation. Here we assess if animal adaptations to cope with low densities (i.e. that facilitate mate-findings or promote spatial aggregation of individuals) can allow species to persist in human-altered habitats. A spatially explicit and individual-based model was developed to assess if, and under what circumstances, such adaptations maintain population viability. The model was parameterised with data from the movement and demography of the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca) and simulated scenarios with differences in adult survivorships, initial population sizes and habitat alterations. Habitat alterations reduced population viability, and extinction rates were dependent on population characteristics and mate-finding distance. In contrast, philopatry around the birthplace did not prevent extinctions. Our results highlight the importance of considering specific spatial traits of species when assessing their vulnerability to human habitat alterations., Financial support was granted by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness, and by the European Regional Development Fund (ID: CGL2012-33536-MINECO/FEDER, UE, CGL2015-64144-MINECO/FEDER, UE). E.G. and R.C.R.C were supported by the Regional Valencian Government with a postdoctoral and predoctoral grant respectively (APOSTD/2015/048 and ACIF/2010/133). A.S.A. was supported by a Vicenç Mut contract co-funded by the Regional Government of the Balearic Islands and the European Social Fund (PD/003/2016). A.S.A and J.D.A were supported by a Ramón y Cajal contracts (RYC-2017- 22796 and RYC-2017-22783 respectively) co-funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, the State Research Agency and the European Social Fund.

Mate searching is a key component of sexual reproduction that can have important implications for population viability, especially for the mate‐finding Allee effect. Interannual sperm storage by females may be an adaptation that potentially attenuates mate limitation, but the demographic consequences of this functional trait have not been studied. Our goal is to assess the effect of female sperm storage durability on the strength of the mate‐finding Allee effect and the viability of populations subject to low population density and habitat alteration. We used an individual‐based simulation model that incorporates realistic representations of the demographic and spatial processes of our model species, the spur‐thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca). This allowed for a detailed assessment of reproductive rates, population growth rates, and extinction probabilities. We also studied the relationship between the number of reproductive males and the reproductive rates for scenarios combining different levels of sperm storage durability, initial population density, and landscape alteration. Our results showed that simulated populations parameterized with the field‐observed demographic rates collapsed for short sperm storage durability, but were viable for a durability of one year or longer. In contrast, the simulated populations with a low initial density were only viable in human‐altered landscapes for sperm storage durability of 4 years. We find that sperm storage is an effective mechanism that can reduce the strength of the mate‐finding Allee effect and contribute to the persistence of low‐density populations. Our study highlights the key role of sperm storage in the dynamics of species with limited movement ability to facilitate reproduction in patchy landscapes or during population expansion. This study represents the first quantification of the effect of sperm storage durability on population dynamics in different landscapes and population scenarios., Financial support was granted by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness, and by the European Regional Development Fund (Projects CGL2012‐33536, CGL2015‐64144; MINECO/FEDER, UE). M.V.J.F. was supported by a “Juan de la Cierva‐formación” postdoctoral grant of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (reference JCI‐2015‐23508), a José Castillejo travel fund (reference CAS17/00225) from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport and a postdoctoral grant funded by the Regional Valencian Government and the European Social Fund (APOSTD/2018/043). A.S.A. was supported by a Vicenç Mut contract co‐funded by the Regional Government of the Balearic Islands and the European Social Fund (PD/003/2016). A.S.A and J.D.A were supported by a Ramón y Cajal contracts (RYC‐2017‐22796 and RYC‐2017‐22783 respectively) co‐funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, the State Research Agency and the European Social Fund. E.G. was supported by the Regional Valencian Government with a postdoctoral grant (APOSTD/2015/048).

During the last decades, landfills have become a valuable food source for wildlife, being in some cases determinants of large avian population increases. Superabundant food resources at landfills can increase reproductive and/or survival parameters; however, negative effects such as intoxication, plastic ingestion, skeletal deformities, unbalanced oxidative stress, and other health problems have also been reported. White stork (Ciconia ciconia) commonly benefits from landfill resources. Here, we evaluate potential landfill effects on demographic parameters (reproduction and offspring survival) at the individual level in a single population.

Our results show that a more intense use of landfills by breeders has a positive effect on hatching success but a negative effect on juvenile survival probability after emancipation, at least during the first year of life. High amount of food and proximity to landfill may explain their beneficial effect on reproductive parameters. On the other hand, poor quality food, pollutants, and pathogens acquired during early development from a diet based on refuse may be responsible for reduced future survival probability. Consequently, both positive and negative effects were detected, being foraging at landfills at low to medium levels the better strategy. Although our study shows that intense foraging on rubbish can imply both costs and benefits at an individual level, the benefits of superabundant food provisioning observed at population level by other studies cannot be ignored. Management actions should be designed to improve natural food resources, reduce non-natural mortality and/or human disturbances to guarantee the species viability under current European Union regulations designed to ban open-air landfills in a near future., ASA was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Innovation and Universities, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Fund (RYC-2017-22796). This paper is a contribution of JAM to the project CGL2017-85637-P of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. ALG was supported by Funding Program of Complutense University of Madrid and Santander Bank (CT63/19-CT64/19).

Identifying important foraging areas is fundamental to detecting the demographic drivers of a species and ultimately to plan conservation measures. For some species, such as small pelagic seabirds, foraging grounds are difficult to locate and remain largely unknown. We used miniaturised GPS devices (∼0.95g) to study foraging movements of Mediterranean Storm-petrels Hydrobates pelagicus melitensis during the incubation period. A total of 43 individuals at Benidorm colony (southwestern Mediterranean Sea) were tracked during a single foraging trip. We first assessed potential negative effects of the tracking devices. We recorded 22 complete foraging trips and measured home-range, foraging areas and the degree of overlap among individuals. We used first passage time analyses (FPT) to differentiate foraging/resting from flying/travelling activities and to infer potential foraging areas. All tracked birds returned to the colony. On average, individual body weight slightly decreased after foraging trips, suggesting a small immediate negative effect of the device. Tracked birds had high breeding success (0.71). Foraging trips lasted between 1 and 4.5 days with the total distance travelled ranging between 303.14 and 1,726.53km. The visited areas covered the whole south-western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Tracked individuals shared more than 50% of their home-range areas. Foraging areas were located further from the colony than previously thought (from 240 to 469km away) on deep sea areas of the Alboran Sea and Cartagena Canyons. Further studies are needed to locate foraging grounds during other life-cycle periods and to evaluate repeatability yearly, in order to determine the important marine areas for the species.—Rotger, A., Sola, A., Tavecchia, G. & Sanz-Aguilar, A. (2021). Foraging far from home: GPS-tracking of Mediterranean Storm-petrels Hydrobates pelagicus melitensis reveals long-distance foraging movements. Ardeola, 68: 3-16., Funds were provided by the project CNME19/0301/39 from the Generalitat Valenciana and the project CGL2017-85210-P from the Spanish Minister of Science, Innovation and Universities. ASA was supported by a “Ramon y Cajal” fellowship (RYC-2017-22796) and GT was supported by I. Hendriks.

Stochasticity in food availability influences vital rates such as survival and fertility. Life-history theory predicts that in long-lived organisms, survival should be buffered against environmental stochasticity showing little temporal variability. Furthermore, to optimize survival prospects, many animal species perform migrations to wintering areas where food availability is larger. Species with large latitudinal distribution ranges may show populations that migrate and others that are resident, and they may co-occur in winter. One example of these species is the predatory raptor buzzard Buteo buteo. Here, we test whether temporal variability in the density of five small mammal species of prey inhabiting different habitats (shrubland and forests) influences local annual survival of buzzards in a wintering area depending on their age and residency status (residents versus wintering individuals). We found that prey density explained a considerable amount of annual changes in local survival, which was higher for older and resident birds. This difference in local survival likely corresponded to philopatry to the wintering area, which was larger for residents and increased when prey density was larger. The total density of prey inhabiting open shrublands was the variable explaining more variance in temporal variability of local survival, even though the study area is mostly occupied by woodlands. Temporal population dynamics of the different small mammals inhabiting shrublands were not synchronous, which suggests that buzzards preyed opportunistically on the most abundant prey each winter. Generalist predation may buffer the impact of resource unpredictability for pulsed and asynchronous prey dynamics, typical of small mammals in winter., Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. Regional conservation agencies (Diputació de Barcelona, Dept. de Territori i Sostenibilitat -Generalitat de Catalunya) provided financial support to SEMICE. JG funded on his own all fieldwork research on buzzards. ASA was supported by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Science (RYC-2017-22796)., Peer reviewed

Informe de actividades y resultados obtenidos en 2021., Este trabajo ha sido posible gracias a la financiación obtenida por varios proyectos: - Ayudas Ramón y Cajal a Ana Sanz Aguilar y Raül Ramos, financiadas por el Ministerio de Innovación y Universidades, la Agencia Estatal de Investigación y el Fondo Social Europeo (RYC-2017- 22796/ RYC-2017- 22055). Fundación Balearia nos facilitó los desplazamientos entre Baleares y la península., Peer reviewed

Determining the non-breeding distribution and activity patterns of migratory animals is essential to understand the trade-offs across breeding, moulting and migratory periods and to evaluate the differential levels of exposure of these animals to threats throughout the year. By taking advantage of the current miniaturization of geolocators, during the breeding season of 2019, we deployed geolocators on 10 European Storm Petrels Hydrobates pelagicus breeding on Benidorm Island, Western Mediterranean, to determine the distribution and activity patterns of this small seabird species. Of the eight individuals that were recaptured with usable geolocation data, all individuals migrated to the North Atlantic Ocean, ranging between the Canary Islands and south of Iceland. They possibly take advantage of the more productive waters in the North Atlantic areas explored during the non-breeding period compared with the Western Mediterranean areas explored during the breeding period. This migratory pattern contrasted with the partial migration described for individuals breeding in the Central Mediterranean. Tracked individuals were more synchronous in their prenuptial than in their postnuptial migratory phenology, probably due to a higher probability of breeding success related to earlier arrival to the breeding area. At-sea activity data indicated that individuals spent more time on the water at night (and especially on those nights around the new moon) during the first half of the non-breeding period (matching the dates of the moulting period of the species). Although birds may begin to moult their feathers while breeding, some seemed to overlap the moulting period with the postnuptial migration. Our results show that multi-colony studies are needed to understand the drivers of distinct migratory patterns at intra- and inter-population levels and how small migratory species trade-off the overlap of moult with other energetically demanding activities such as breeding or migrating., This work was supported by the Welcome Pack (2019) of the Universitat de Barcelona and by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Inovación (project reference: PID2020-117155GB-I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033). A.S.-A. and R.R. were supported by postdoctoral Ramón y Cajal contracts of the Spanish Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO; RYC-2017-22055 and RYC-2017-22796).

Variation in offspring sex ratio, particularly in birds, has been frequently studied over the last century, although seldom using long-term monitoring data. In raptors, the cost of raising males and females is not equal, and several variables have been found to have significant effects on sex ratio, including food availability, parental age, and hatching order. Sex ratio differences between island populations and their mainland counterparts have been poorly documented, despite broad scientific literature on the island syndrome reporting substantial differences in population demography and ecology. Here, we assessed individual and environmental factors potentially affecting the secondary sex ratio of the long-lived Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus. We used data collected from Spanish mainland and island populations over a ca. 30-year period (1995-2021) to assess the effects of insularity, parental age, breeding phenology, brood size, hatching order, type of breeding unit (pairs vs. trios), and spatial and temporal variability on offspring sex ratio. No sex bias was found at the population level, but two opposite trends were observed between mainland and island populations consistent with the island syndrome. Offspring sex ratio was nonsignificantly female-biased in mainland Spain (0.47, n = 1112) but significantly male-biased in the Canary Islands (0.55, n = 499), where a male-biased mortality among immatures could be compensating for offspring biases and maintaining a paired adult sex ratio. Temporal and spatial variation in food availability might also have some influence on sex ratio, although the difficulties in quantifying them preclude us from determining the magnitude of such influence. This study shows that insularity influences the offspring sex ratio of the Egyptian vulture through several processes that can affect island and mainland populations differentially. Our research contributes to improving our understanding of sex allocation theory by investigating whether sex ratio deviations from parity are possible as a response to changing environments comprised by multiple and complexly interrelated factors., Research was funded and supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (CGL2007-61395, CGL2010-15726, CGL2013-42451-P), the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PID2019-109685GB-I00, RTI2018-099609-B-C21), Junta de Andalucía (P18-RT-1321, EMERIGIA 2021.1524, FEDER 2021_1073), Diputación General de Aragón, Gobierno de las Islas Baleares, Gobierno de Canarias, Cabildo Insular de Fuerteventura, Junta de Castilla y León, and Comunidad de Bardenas Reales de Navarra. G.G.L. was supported by a FPU fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (FPU19/06511). A.S.A. was supported by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Science (RYC-2017-22796). E.A. was supported by La Caixa-Severo Ochoa International PhD Program 2015; Generalitat Valenciana and European Social Fund (APOSTD/2021), and Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities Contracts (FJC2021-047885-I). M.G.A. was supported by a contract from “Programa de FPU del Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte” (FPU13/05429). A.C.A. was supported by EMERGIA Program from Junta de Andalucía. IMEDEA is an accredited “Maria de Maeztu Excellence Unit” (ref. CEX2021-001198/funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

[ES] El estudio del movimiento de los individuos informa directamente sobre los tamaños de las áreas de campeo, las rutas migratorias o la selección de hábitat. Pero, además, la integración de datos de movimiento en modelos ecológicos permite además abordar mayores escalas. En este trabajo mostramos los resultados de nuestra línea de investigación utilizando STEPLAND, un modelo basado en el individuo de desarrollo propio. El modelo se parametrizó con datos de movimiento, demográficos y genéticos de tortugas terrestres (Testudo graeca) del SE de España. Llevamos a cabo diferentes experimentos de simulación con el fin de contestar a cuestiones sobre los efectos del cambio global en la conservación de la especie. A nivel de especie, identificamos aquellos rasgos evolutivos de las tortugas, como el almacenamiento de esperma por parte de las hembras, que evitan las extinciones en hábitats antropizados. A escala de paisaje, evaluamos el impacto del abandono agrícola y la intensificación en la dinámica poblacional de esta especie de vida larga. La intensificación afectó negativamente las tasas reproductivas, la densidad de población y la probabilidad de extinción de T. graeca, con respuestas de retardo de 20, 30 y 130 años respectivamente. Finalmente, en un contexto regional, pretendemos simular las primeras etapas de una expansión. Los primeros resultados sugieren patrones característicos de surfing genético, un proceso que afecta la expansión de especies de baja dispersión afectadas por deriva genética. Creemos que nuestra línea de investigación ejemplifica bien que el valor científico de los datos de movimiento excede el nivel de individuo., [EN] The study of the movement of individuals directly informs about home-range sizes, migratory routes or habitat selection. But also, integrating movement into ecological models allows for larger-scale studies. Here we summarize the results of our line of research based in the individual-based model STEPLAND. The model was parameterized with movement, demographic and genetic data of spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) in SE Spain. We developed different simulation experiments to answer questions about the effects of global change on the conservation of this species. At the species level, we identified those evolutionary traits of tortoises, such as female sperm storage, that prevent extinctions in human-altered habitats. At landscape scale, we assessed the impact of agricultural abandonment and agricultural intensification on the population dynamics of this long-lived species. Only agricultural intensification negatively affected reproductive rates, population density, and probability of extinction of T. graeca, with time-lag responses of 20, 30 and 130 years respectively. Finally, in a regional context, we aim to simulate the early stages of a range expansion. Preliminary results reveal patterns compatible to “genetic surfing”, a process affecting the expansion of low dispersal species impacted by strong genetic drift. We believe that our line of research exemplifies well that the scientific value of movement data goes well beyond the individual level., Esta línea de investigación se ha sufragado con las ayudas PID2019-105682RA-I00, financiada por MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033; y por CGL2015-64144, con financiación de MINECO/FEDER (UE). También contamos con financiación de Generalitat Valenciana, a través del proyecto AICO/2021/145. El contrato de R.C.R.C. se sufraga con una ayuda del programa María Zambrano (ZAMBRANO 21-26), con fondos European Union-Next Generation (EU). A.S.A. y J.D.A. cuentan con ayudas Ramón y Cajal del
Ministerio de Ciencia (RYC-2017-22796 y RYC-2017-22783, respectivamente). M.V.J.F. tiene un contrato Juan de la Cierva Incorporación (IJC2019-039145-I) de este mismo organismo y ella y A.S.A. cuentan con financiación a Grupos Emergentes (CIGE/2021/157) de Generalitat Valenciana., Peer reviewed

Waterbirds are particularly affected by the high hunting pressure they face in many regions, which in some cases is compromising conservation actions for threatened species. The marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris is one of the most endangered waterbirds in Europe. In order to restore its population, several conservation actions have recently been undertaken, including a population reinforcement programme in Spain using captive-bred birds. With the aim of assessing the success of the reinforcement programme to establish a long-term self-sustaining population, we identified mortality causes of marbled teal, evaluated the survival of individual birds of the reinforcement programme and estimated the viability of the population under different management scenarios. We used data from wild and captive-bred individuals tracked by GPS since 2018 (n = 42) and from a mark–recapture programme initiated in 2015 (n = 297). We recovered 15 dead birds or transmitters: 20% died of natural causes, 60% of non-natural causes (including all anthropic causes) and 20% of unknown causes. Furthermore, the GPS tags of 24 birds unexpectedly stopped transmitting without any indication of malfunction, and for 66.7% of these disappeared birds, the cessation was suspected to be caused by illegal shooting. Survival during the hunting season was higher for males (31.3%) than for females (12.5%), and for the wild (50%) than for the captive-bred birds (9.4%), probably due to differences in migration patterns to North Africa. Population viability models revealed that maintaining the breeding population at the current mortality rates is only possible with a permanent release programme of captive-bred individuals, and that in order to establish a self-sustaining population, non-natural mortality would have to be reduced by at least 40%. We recommend management measures to reduce marbled teal mortality, such as limiting legal hunting to hours with clear visibility, prosecuting illegal shootings, controlling exotic predators and improving water management to reduce disease outbreaks. Some improvements can be implemented in captive-breeding programmes, such as earlier release times and incorporating anti-predator training., The transmitters were funded by the Generalitat Valenciana, the Ministry for Ecological Transition and the Biodiversity Foundation. JMPG was supported by a Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities postdoctoral contract IJC-2019-038968 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. ESG and ASA received the grants RYC2019-027216-I and RYC-2017-22796 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by ESF Investing in your future. RCRC was supported by the European Union-Next Generation EU in the Maria Zambrano Program (ZAMBRANO 21-26). The present research was carried out within the framework of the activities of the Spanish Government through the ‘Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence’ accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021-001198)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Seabirds' distribution is generally influenced by the ecological dynamics of marine environments. Understanding how oceanographic features shape seabird foraging behaviour remains a challenge. We combined GPS tracking locations (n = 2883) of 39 European Storm-petrels (Hydrobates pelagicus) breeding in four West Mediterranean colonies during incubation over multiple years (2019–2021) with near-real-time remotely sensed oceanographic drivers. We model habitat selection using GPS tracking data from one colony, Benidorm Island, and use data from other three colonies for validation. We show that suitable foraging areas are strongly characterized by low sea surface temperature, high chlorophyll concentration and eddy kinetic energy. Based on this model, we predict habitat suitability maps for 2018–2022. Cross-validation using data from the other three colonies highlights that the identified suitable areas are universally applicable across other Storm-petrel colonies in the Western Mediterranean. We identified the Alboran Sea, the North African coast, the Gulf of Lion and the Ebro River Delta as the most suitable regions. These areas are characterized by high mesoscale variability, suggesting the importance of dynamic oceanographic features in determining foraging habitat. Identified main foraging areas are largely outside of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), thus vulnerable to anthropogenic threats such as overfishing and energy infrastructure development. The critical foraging areas identified for this species underscore the need to expand the MPA network and/or adopt sustainable resource extraction in unprotected marine areas., Also thank Autoritat Portuaria de Balears, the Conselleria de Medi Ambient i Territori del Govern de les Illes Balears, Sant Lluis Town Council. Additional funds were provided by the Government of Balearic Islands, Generalitat Valenciana (CnME19/0301/39), and the Spanish Minister of Science, Innovation and Universities (CGL2017–85210-P). AR was supported by a “Vicenç Mut” fellowship (PD/004/2022). ASA was supported by a “Ramon y Cajal” fellowship (RyC-2017-22,796). This research was funded by Biodiversa+, the European Biodiversity Partnership under the 2022–2023 BiodivMon joint call for research proposals, co-funded by the European Commission (GA N°101,052,342) and Fundación Biodiversidad as funding organisations (project SEAGHOSTS).
This work was conducted within the framework of the activities of the Spanish Government through the “Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence” accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021–001198)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021–001198)., Peer reviewed

Survival is a key demographic parameter for long-lived bird species as it strongly influences their population dynamics and persistence. In recent decades, several studies have focused on unravelling differential patterns of survival by sex or age in bird populations, as each group may be affected by different ecological and anthropogenic pressures. Vultures are a highly threatened group of birds where age- and especially sex-dependent survival patterns have been understudied, and therefore, obtaining robust estimates and understanding which factors modulate them is crucial for developing management and conservation strategies. Here, we used a long-term dataset (1990–2023) from a wild colony of griffon vultures Gyps fulvus in central Spain and a capture-mark-recapture framework to address potential sex- and age-mediated patterns of apparent survival and resighting. Resighting probabilities were lower for individuals in their first year of life than for older individuals. Apparent survival probabilities increased with age and were generally higher for males than for females, particularly in subadults. Disentangling whether an unequal survival between sexes is due to female-biased dispersal or to true mortality is necessary to understand population dynamics and to be able to implement adequate conservation management actions. Our research underlines the importance of considering sex and age interactions in demographic analyses of long-lived, usually threatened species., The research has been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (CGL2007-61395, CGL2010-15726, CGL2013-42451-P) and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (PID2019-109685GB-I00 funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and UE/FEDER). G.G.L. was supported by an FPU fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (FPU19/06511). A.S.A. was supported by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Science (RYC-2017-22796). IMEDEA is an accredited ‘Maria de Maeztu Excellence Unit’ (ref. CEX2021-001198/funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Seabirds in general, and petrels in particular, are the subject of multiple conservation concerns. Invasive alien predators are their main threat at breeding colonies. Rats are the most common predators on islands where they jeopardise reproduction and even adult survival of the smaller seabird species. We hypothesised that colonisation of Mediterranean Islands by Black Rats Rattus rattus 2000 years ago could have led to highly susceptible seabirds, such as European Storm Petrels Hydrobates pelagicus, to become adapted to avoid rat infested areas. Given the extraordinary sense of smell of petrels, rat avoidance could be mediated by olfactory cues. To test this hypothesis, we used a Y-maze experiment in which 56 breeding birds were tested to choose between odour-free and rat odour options. Only 20 birds made a choice, and their choice was random, suggesting that European Storm Petrels do not recognise/avoid the Black Rats odour. This result is important for conservation and has implications for restoration programmes on islands where Storm Petrels are not currently present.—Sanz-Aguilar, A., Rotger, A., Castell, M. & Bonadonna, F. (2025). Rat odour does not repel European Storm Petrels Hydrobates pelagicus. Ardeola, 72: 271-280., This study was carried under the auspices of the Spanish Government through the “Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence” accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021-001198). Fieldwork was partially funded by a Ramon y Cajal fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Innovation and Universities, the Agencia Estatal de Investigación and the European Social Fund (RYC-2017-22796)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

For decades, variation in offspring sex ratios in birds has been a key topic in animal demography and population dynamics. In raptors, different factors such as food availability and breeding phenology may significantly influence sex ratios, while the impact of climatic conditions remains poorly documented. Here, we explored individual and environmental factors potentially affecting the secondary sex ratio of the long-lived, single-egg layer cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus. Using data collected over a 20-year period (2004-2023) in two breeding areas of central Spain, we assessed the effects of food availability, breeding phenology, climatic conditions, and spatiotemporal variability on offspring sex ratio (n = 186 nestlings). Offspring sex ratio was not biased either at the population, area or nucleus level, but deviations from a paired sex ratio were found in specific years and nuclei. Offspring sex ratio was not influenced by a food availability proxy (a two-level factor reflecting changes in livestock carcass availability derived from sanitary regulations implemented after the mad-cow crisis), and showed a tendency to be affected by breeding phenology, with more male offspring at the end of the breeding season in the high-altitude area. Moreover, temperature in the months prior to fertilization, but not after, affected nestling sex. Both cold and warm winters resulted in a predominance of male nestlings, while intermediate temperatures were associated with more females. Although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear, the temperature-associated sex ratio bias may be due to female sex manipulation or as an epiphenomenon associated with hormonal-mediated sex determination. These results emphasize the importance of studying how pre-fertilization climatic conditions might affect sex determination, and suggest that deviations in offspring sex ratios in long-lived species may be shaped by complex interactions between individual and environmental factors., The research has been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (CGL2007-61395, CGL2010-15726, CGL2013-42451-P) and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (PID2019-109685GB-I00 funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and UE/FEDER). G.G.L. was supported by a FPU fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (FPU19/06511). A.S.A. was supported by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Science (RYC-2017-22796). IMEDEA is an accredited ‘Maria de Maeztu Excellence Unit’ (ref. CEX2021-001198 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Women (and all gender-discriminated people) are underrepresented in science, especially in leadership positions and higher stages of the scientific career. One of the main causes of career abandonment by women is maternity, with many women leaving Academia after having their first child because of the career penalties associated with motherhood. Thus, more actions to help scientific moms to balance family and academic work are urgently needed to increase representation of women and other gender discriminated people in Academia. Besides mothers, these rules may also benefit other groups such as mothers-to-be, fathers, caregivers, and women in general. Increasing women representation in science, including mothers, is critical because equality is a fundamental right, and because more diverse working environments are more productive and get to more optimal solutions. Here, we describe 10 simple rules that can be adopted in Academia to halt the abandonment of scientific careers by women after motherhood. We strongly encourage their implementation to increase gender diversity and equality in science.

[eng] Individuals make habitat selection decisions at different moments of their life and in heterogeneous habitats. Understanding the links between environmental changes and demographic patterns during the individuals' life is therefore critical to predict long-term eco-evolutionary dynamics and species persistence. However, fitness and persistence consequences of habitat selection are seldom addressed in demographic studies. We used long-term capture–recapture data of Mediterranean Storm Petrels to investigate how habitat-selection decisions are made at different spatial (i.e., among and within breeding zones) and temporal (i.e., natal and breeding fidelity) scales in a colony characterized by significant variation in habitat quality due to contrasting parasite infestation levels. Specifically, we evaluate whether birds hatched in and/or breeding at different zones experience different (1) fitness components (i.e., breeding success and survival) and (2) fidelity (i.e., natal and breeding fidelity). In addition, we (3) explore the causes, environmental cues, and consequences of nest fidelity versus dispersal. Finally, we project (4) how these differences influence population dynamics and persistence (i.e., population growth rate). Our findings reveal that habitat selection decisions have synergistic fitness consequences on multiple temporal and spatial scales considered. Specifically, breeders in the lower quality habitat zone (i.e., high tick infestation) exhibited reduced breeding success, local survival, and nest fidelity, but remained within their zone. Breeding success of individuals exhibiting nest dispersal marginally increased. Moreover, natal fidelity was lowest at the zone where fitness was highest. Overall, population growth rate at the colony suggests an annual population decline between 6% and 10%. Individuals seem to base their dispersal decision, but not their habitat selection choices on public information. As a result, birds do not experience increased fitness, indicating the potential presence of an evolutionary trap. Understanding the interplay between synergistic and opposing habitat choices is central to understanding species eco-evolutionary dynamics. Further, our results highlight exciting avenues for future research, when aiming to understand the complex and fundamental roles played by heterogeneity in habitat quality in species demography and eco-evolutionary dynamics, with significant implications for species management and conservation strategies.

[eng] Identifying important foraging areas is fundamental for understanding the demographic drivers shaping species dynamics and for planning effective conservation measures. However, for small pelagic seabirds such as the Mediterranean Storm-petrel (<em>Hydrobates pelagicus melitensis</em>), foraging grounds are difficult to locate and remain largely unknown. We used miniaturised GPS devices (~0.95 g) to study foraging movements during the incubation period, tracking 43 individuals from the Benidorm colony (south-western Mediterranean Sea) over a single foraging trip. Potential negative effects of the devices were first assessed, and 22 complete foraging trips were obtained, allowing the estimation of home ranges, foraging areas and the degree of spatial overlap among individuals. First passage time (FPT) analyses were used to distinguish foraging or resting behaviour from travelling flights and to infer potential foraging areas. All tracked birds returned to the colony, and although body mass slightly decreased after foraging trips—suggesting a small immediate negative effect of the device—breeding success of tracked individuals was high (0.71). Foraging trips lasted between 1 and 4.5 days, with total distances travelled ranging from 303.14 to 1,726.53 km, covering most of the south-western Mediterranean Sea. Individuals shared more than 50% of their home-range areas, and foraging grounds were located much farther from the colony than previously thought (240–469 km), mainly over deep-sea areas of the Alboran Sea and the Cartagena Canyons. Further studies are required to identify foraging areas during other life-cycle stages and to assess interannual repeatability, in order to robustly determine the most important marine areas for the conservation of this species.

Survival is a key parameter in species' management and conservation. Most methods for estimating survival require time series data, large sample sizes and, overall, costly monitoring efforts. Inverse modeling approaches can be less data hungry, however they are underused in conservation sciences. Here we present an inverse modeling approach for estimating relative survival rates of long-lived species that is mathematically straightforward and evaluate its performance under constraints common in conservation studies related to small sample sizes. Specifically, we (i) estimated the relative survival rates in a Testudo graeca population based on one-year monitoring, (ii) assessed the impact of sample size on the accuracy, and (iii) tested alternative hypotheses on the impact of fire on the survival rates. We then compared the results of our approach with capture-recapture (CRC) estimates based on long-term monitoring. Our approach (153 individuals within a single year) yielded estimates of survival rates overlapping those of CRC estimates (11 years of data and 1009 individuals) for adults and subadults, but not for juveniles. Simulation experiments showed that our method provides robust estimates if sample size is above 100 individuals. The best models describing the impact of fire on survival identified by our approach predicts a decrease in survival especially in hatchlings and juvenile individuals, similar to CRC estimates. Our work proves that inverse modeling can decrease the cost for estimating demographic rates, especially for long-lived species and as such, its use should be encouraged in conservation and management sciences.

El estudio del movimiento de los individuos informa directamente sobre los tamaños de las áreas de campeo, las rutas migratorias o la selección de hábitat. Pero, además, la integración de datos de movimiento en modelos ecológicos permite además abordar mayores escalas. En este trabajo mostramos los resultados de nuestra línea de investigación utilizando STEPLAND, un modelo basado en el individuo de desarrollo propio. El modelo se parametrizó con datos de movimiento, demográficos y genéticos de tortugas terrestres (Testudo graeca) del SE de España. Llevamos a cabo diferentes experimentos de simulación con el fin de contestar a cuestiones sobre los efectos del cambio global en la conservación de la especie. A nivel de especie, identificamos aquellos rasgos evolutivos de las tortugas, como el almacenamiento de esperma por parte de las hembras, que evitan las extinciones en hábitats antropizados. A escala de paisaje, evaluamos el impacto del abandono agrícola y la intensificación en la dinámica poblacional de esta especie de vida larga. La intensificación afectó negativamente las tasas reproductivas, la densidad de población y la probabilidad de extinción de T. graeca, con respuestas de retardo de 20, 30 y 130 años respectivamente. Finalmente, en un contexto regional, pretendemos simular las primeras etapas de una expansión. Los primeros resultados sugieren patrones característicos de surfing genético, un proceso que afecta la expansión de especies de baja dispersión afectadas por deriva genética. Creemos que nuestra línea de investigación ejemplifica bien que el valor científico de los datos de movimiento excede el nivel de individuo.

Waterbirds are particularly affected by the high hunting pressure they face in many regions, which in some cases is compromising conservation actions for threatened species. The marbled teal Marmaronetta angustirostris is one of the most endangered waterbirds in Europe. In order to restore its population, several conservation actions have recently been undertaken, including a population reinforcement programme in Spain using captive-bred birds. With the aim of assessing the success of the reinforcement programme to establish a long-term self-sustaining population, we identified mortality causes of marbled teal, evaluated the survival of individual birds of the reinforcement programme and estimated the viability of the population under different management scenarios. We used data from wild and captive-bred individuals tracked by GPS since 2018 (n = 42) and from a mark–recapture programme initiated in 2015 (n = 297). We recovered 15 dead birds or transmitters: 20% died of natural causes, 60% of non-natural causes (including all anthropic causes) and 20% of unknown causes. Furthermore, the GPS tags of 24 birds unexpectedly stopped transmitting without any indication of malfunction, and for 66.7% of these disappeared birds, the cessation was suspected to be caused by illegal shooting. Survival during the hunting season was higher for males (31.3%) than for females (12.5%), and for the wild (50%) than for the captive-bred birds (9.4%), probably due to differences in migration patterns to North Africa. Population viability models revealed that maintaining the breeding population at the current mortality rates is only possible with a permanent release programme of captive-bred individuals, and that in order to establish a self-sustaining population, non-natural mortality would have to be reduced by at least 40%. We recommend management measures to reduce marbled teal mortality, such as limiting legal hunting to hours with clear visibility, prosecuting illegal shootings, controlling exotic predators and improving water management to reduce disease outbreaks. Some improvements can be implemented in captive-breeding programmes, such as earlier release times and incorporating anti-predator training.