Plant reproductive strategies are particularly relevant on islands, where environmental constraints usually shape ecological dynamics. In this sense, the role of lizards (Lacertilia) as flower visitors and potential pollinators has been increasingly recognized. However, lizards may also consume plant reproductive tissues, potentially influenced by lizard intraspecific traits such as age and sex. This study aims to investigate, for the first time, the reproductive biology of the rare Mediterranean shrub Withania frutescens (L.) Pauquy (Solanaceae), and to assess the role of the Balearic lizard Podarcis lilfordi Günther (Lacertidae) as a potential pollinator on Na Redona islet (Cabrera archipelago, Balearic Islands). We analysed flower traits (corolla length, corolla diameter, stamen length, and pistil length) and performed flower bagging experiments with three pollination treatments (open pollination, autogamy, and cross hand-pollination) from 2018 to 2021 to unravel the plant reproductive system. Fruit set, the number of seeds per fruit, seed weight, size and viability were then assessed. Observational censuses were conducted to identify the main flower visitors and estimate their visitation frequency. Finally, we measured morphometric traits of lizards and explored potential intraspecific variation in floral use. The flowers of W. frutescens were morphologically hermaphroditic but functionally dioecious, spatially separated in unisexual individual plants. Open pollination and autogamy treatments resulted in similar fruit set, while cross hand-pollination produced the highest value. However, open pollination significantly increased seed weight and viability. Lizards were the most frequent floral visitors, accounting for 68% of visits, while insects made up the remaining 32%. Lizards played a dual role as both pollinators and florivores, with 45% of their visits potentially contributing to pollination and 55% involving florivory. Juveniles and females primarily conducted legitimate visits, whereas males -with a larger size- were more likely to consume the flowers. Our research describes, for the first time, a mixed reproductive system in W. frutescens, combining hermaphroditism with cryptic dioecy. We also provide a new example of a lizard-pollinated plant, highlighting the importance of vertebrates on island pollination as well as the influence of pollinator intraspecific variation on plant reproductive success. Further research on the reproductive and pollination systems of small, isolated plant populations is crucial, given their heightened vulnerability to disturbance and genetic inbreeding., The study is framed within projects PolinIslas (REF. 2713/2021) funded by the Organismos de Parques Nacionales (Ministerio de Transición Ecológica, Spain), project DEPICT (REF. PID2020-114324GB-C21) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, and project IslandLife (REF. 101054177) funded by the ERC AdG of the Program Horizon Europe. R.M.G. was funded by an FPU fellowship (REF. FPU17/05463) from the Spanish Ministry of Universities. A grant from the Balearic Government PD/004/2019 supported the work of S.H-P. The present research was carried out within the framework of the activities of the Spanish Government through the ‘Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence’ accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021-001198). The authors declare no conflict of interest., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Plant diversity is critical to ensure the future of humanity, as it provides essential ecosystem services and functioning. As recent estimates showed that animal-mediated pollination is crucial for the reproduction of approximately 90% of flowering plants, playing an essential role in maintaining biodiversity and agricultural productivity, effort to preserve plants cannot be disjoined from pollinator conservation initiatives. Despite their importance, pollinators have experienced alarming declines. The LIFE 4 Pollinators project was launched to involve people protecting wild bees and other pollinators in the Mediterranean. This study presents data collected through the project's web-platform, where users uploaded over 2,000 photographs of plant-pollinator interactions between 2021 and 2024. The dataset focuses on the identification of flower-visiting insects and plants, and the current study gives emphasis to citizen scientists' ability to identify plants and pollinators. 1,407 photo-records were analysed, revealing that bees and beetles were the most frequent pollinators, with plants of the Asteraceae and Cistaceae families being the most recorded. Users correctly identified 93.7% of insect taxonomic aggregations and 74.2% of plant species. The study also highlights the recording of threatened, alien, and invasive species, including the vulnerable Callicera spinolae and the invasive Vespa velutina. The plant-pollinator network analysis supports the floral syndrome concept, with floral morphologies like 'Head' and 'Disk' attracting a wide range of pollinators. The results indicate that citizen science contributes to the identification and monitoring of pollinators, generating knowledge that may be key to the conservation of these organisms and to better understand plant-pollinator interactions. Data collection through citizen-generated photographs allows to significantly expand the geographic area and the magnitude of studies, facilitating large-scale analyses that would be difficult to achieve with traditional monitoring methods. These findings provide a useful basis for future conservation initiatives and the development of policies aimed at mitigating pollinator decline., Research project implemented under the LIFE 4 Pollinators Project (LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755). MG was partially supported by the Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), Project title ‘National Biodiversity Future Center -NBFC’. CUP J33C22001190001. FFB’s PhD grant was co-financed by the European Union- FSE REACT EU – PON R&I 2014–2020. AT, JMS and LN were partially supported by PolinIslas (ref. OAPN 2713/2021) project. AT was also partially supported by IslandLife ERC project under the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (ref. 101054177)., Peer reviewed

The study of floral biology has long attracted the attention of plant biologists because of its enormous basic and applied implications, spanning from identification of the ecological and genetic drivers of flowering plant evolution to the performance of crop yields in agricultural systems. In a rapidly changing planet, floral biology studies acquire an utmost importance to comprehend the multiple ecological, economical, and social challenges ahead for humanity. In this special issue, we gathered a collection of papers dealing with various ecological, genetic, and evolutionary aspects of floral biology. This special issue encompasses 12 papers showcasing theoretical and empirical research on plant-pollinator communities, pollinators and pollination modes, floral ecology and genetics at various spatial scales, and the effects of warming-induced abiotic stress on floral biology. Overall, this special issue highlights the importance of long-term spatial and temporal studies, which require a collaborative effort of the research community, and the development of experimental approaches to quantify in detail the effects of human-induced abiotic stress, such as droughts and heatwaves, on plant reproduction., This research was funded by grant PID2023-147962NB-I00 from Agencia Estatal de Investigación of Spain (AEI/10.13039/501100011033) and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER, UE) to F.X.P., grants PID2021-122715NB-I00 and TED2021-131037B-I00 (MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, FEDER/UE) to J.A., and European Research Council (ERC AdG grant 101054177) to A.T., Peer reviewed

[ES] Islands are ecosystems particularly vulnerable to biological invasions due to their geographic isolation, high specialization and low pressure from natural predators and competition. In fact, invasive species have contributed to 86% of the extinctions of island endemic species. In this research, we review the ecological impacts of biological invasions on islands, both on the functional traits of native species and on different ecological functions and interactions. The introduction of species can affect the functional traits of species, either by increasing functional diversity by adding new traits into the ecosystem, or by reducing it by introducing redundant traits to those of native species. Ecological interactions, both mutualistic (pollination, seed dispersal, plant-microorganism) and antagonistic (herbivory, pathogenic parasitism, predation), can also be altered. The indirect impacts of invasive species, complex and difficult to quantify, can be crucial in island ecosystems, which are commonly affected by multiple invasive species that may interact with each other. Although non-native species can cause significant ecological disruptions, in some cases they can also functionally replace extinct native species. Addressing the knowledge gaps identified in this study will be essential to protect island ecosystems from biological invasions. Future research should adopt interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches that integrate contextual variation and the different levels of ecological organization. Promoting this type of research will be essential to design more effective conservation strategies aimed at preserving not only island biodiversity, but also the stability and functionality of these unique ecosystems., [EN] Islands are ecosystems particularly vulnerable to biological invasions due to their geographic isolation, high specialization and low pressure from natural predators and competition. In fact, invasive species have contributed to 86% of the extinctions of island endemic species. In this research, we review the ecological impacts of biological invasions on islands, both on the functional traits of native species and on different ecological functions and interactions. The introduction of species can affect the functional traits of species, either by increasing functional diversity by adding new traits into the ecosystem, or by reducing it by introducing redundant traits to those of native species. Ecological interactions, both mutualistic (pollination, seed dispersal, plant-microorganism) and antagonistic (herbivory, pathogenic parasitism, predation), can also be altered. The indirect impacts of invasive species, complex and difficult to quantify, can be crucial in island ecosystems, which are commonly affected by multiple invasive species that may interact with each other. Although non-native species can cause significant ecological disruptions, in some cases they can also functionally replace extinct native species. Addressing the knowledge gaps identified in this study will be essential to protect island ecosystems from biological invasions. Future research should adopt interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches that integrate contextual variation and the different levels of ecological organization. Promoting this type of research will be essential to design more effective conservation strategies aimed at preserving not only island biodiversity, but also the stability and functionality of these unique ecosystems., Este estudio se ha llevado a cabo en el marco de las actividades del Gobierno de España a través de la Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu 2023-2027 (MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033) concedido al IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (ref. CEX2021-001198) y al BC3 (ref. CEX2021-001201-M). El trabajo se enmarca también dentro del proyecto IslandLife (Ref. 101054177) financiado por el Consejo Europeo de Investigación (ERC, Advanced Grant). I. Donoso fue financiada por una beca postdoctoral Ikerbasque. M. Vollstädt fue financiado por una beca postdoctoral Marie Curie (Horizon-TMA-MSCA-101149502)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001201-M)., Peer reviewed

Pollinator declines pose a significant threat to ecosystem services, making effective monitoring methods critical for conservation efforts. Current research on pollination interactions remains constrained by traditional methods such as direct observations, which have limited spatial and temporal coverage and are inherently biased toward diurnal interactions. Moreover, the presence of human observers can alter pollinator behaviour, and field notebooks serve as the only permanent records, restricting data accessibility and reproducibility.
To overcome these challenges, we developed an Automated Camera System (ACS) that integrates Raspberry Pi hardware with YOLOv5, a deep learning-based object detection model, to detect pollinators in plant communities. The system was trained on video recordings of plant–pollinator interactions collected over 4 years across four different islands. Detected pollinators were subsequently classified to the species level by an entomologist, who also determined which individuals had landed on floral structures. We also conducted 13 field campaigns across six study sites over two spring seasons to monitor all flowering plants using both direct observations and multiple ACS units. This approach allowed us to compare the plant–pollinator data acquired by each method.
The resulting datasets derived from ACS and direct observations shared similar characteristics (e.g. species richness and Shannon diversity) and core interactions. However, ACS recorded higher pollinator visitation rates per individual and species than direct observations, likely due to the absence of human observers. Additionally, ACS detected a greater proportion of interactions, particularly low-frequency ones, which significantly influenced network metrics and lead to higher connectance and specialisation and lower robustness. Despite these advantages, ACS had difficulties in detecting small-bodied pollinators (<5 mm), highlighting an area for future refinement.
This is the first study to introduce an open-source tool for automatically detecting both nocturnal and diurnal plant–pollinator interactions across natural plant communities and to cross-validate it with direct observations. We foresee that the proposed system has broad applications in research and conservation, providing valuable insights into pollination networks across diverse species and ecosystems., PESM's work was funded by the regional PhD grant FPI-CAIB 009-2022. This study is part of the IslandLife project (Ref. 101054177), funded by an ERC Advanced Grant to AT and is also partially supported by the POLINISLAS project (Ref. 2713/2021). Additional support was provided by the María de Maeztu Excellence Unit (Project CEX2021-001198-M). AL's work was funded by the European Commission—NextGenerationEU, through the Momentum CSIC Programme: Develop Your Digital Talent. AS-R and JB-H acknowledge funding from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Project PID2021-128966NB-I00), and JB-H also acknowledges support from the Ramón y Cajal Program (Grant RYC2020-030609-I)., Peer reviewed

This dataset contains information on plant–pollinator interactions collected in Cabrera during the 2022–2023 field campaigns. Data were obtained through direct observations and automatic camera recordings across different habitats. Each row corresponds to a sampling event (census of pollinator visits to flowering plants)., This data was collected as a part of the IslandLife project (Ref.~101054177), funded by an ERC Advanced Grant to Anna Traveset, and is also partially supported by the POLINISLAS project (Ref.~2713/2021) funded by the Organismo de Parques Nacionales to Anna Traveset., Peer reviewed

Metabarcoding results for root associated fungi in roots of plant species in five small islands. Sequencing was done using Illumina MySeq 300., European Research Council
IslandLife 101054177;
Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades
MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, Peer reviewed

Seed dispersal by animals supports plant regeneration and ecosystem resilience, yet conservation success is still commonly evaluated using species richness rather than the organisation of ecological interactions. This is particularly problematic in human-modified ecosystems, where management interventions can increase diversity without restoring historical interaction structures or functional stability. We compared seed dispersal networks on two climatically and biogeographically similar oceanic islands in the Seychelles archipelago with contrasting management trajectories: one strictly protected and under historically oriented management, aimed at limiting introductions and maintaining historically informed community structure, and one anthropogenically diversified through long-term human occupation and species introductions. Using a multi-metric ecological network approach integrating modularity-based roles, centrality indices and motif analyses, we quantified how plants and dispersers contribute to network structure under each management context. Anthropogenic diversification increased interaction diversity and the number of dispersal events but resulted in a less cohesive network dominated by peripheral species and a narrow set of structurally central dispersers. In contrast, the historically oriented management island exhibited lower interaction diversity but greater network cohesion, with strong redundancy in plant-level dispersal pathways. Shared species occupied different structural roles across islands, indicating strong context dependence in their contribution to seed dispersal networks. Motif analyses revealed contrasting interaction niche structures across management contexts. In the anthropogenically diversified island, dispersal relied on a small set of generalist dispersers, suggesting potential vulnerability to their loss. In the historically oriented management island, dispersal was spread across more species, indicating greater redundancy. These differences imply distinct but predictable vulnerabilities arising from alternative management pathways. Synthesis and applications. Our findings show that management strategies can create fundamentally different seed dispersal regimes, even under similar environmental conditions. Anthropogenic diversification reshapes network organisation into distinct structural configurations, rather than consistently enhancing overall cohesion. Incorporating interaction structure into conservation planning can help prioritise key dispersers and plants, anticipate hidden vulnerabilities, and guide management actions that better sustain seed dispersal processes in human-modified island ecosystems. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the journal's blog., We also acknowledge the Seychelles Ministry of Agriculture, Climate Change, and Environment, as well as the Seychelles Bureau of Standards (ref: A0157), for permitting us to conduct this research. This study was framed within the project IslandLife, funded by the ERC AdG (ref: 101054177) to Anna Traveset, and has also been carried out within the framework of the Spanish Government's activities through the ‘Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence’ accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021-001198)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Seed dispersal by animals supports plant regeneration and ecosystem resilience, yet conservation success is still commonly evaluated using species richness rather than the organisation of ecological interactions. This is particularly problematic in human-modified ecosystems, where management interventions can increase diversity without restoring historical interaction structures or functional stability. We compared seed dispersal networks on two climatically and biogeographically similar oceanic islands in the Seychelles archipelago with contrasting management trajectories: one strictly protected and under historically oriented management, aimed at limiting introductions and maintaining historically informed community structure, and one anthropogenically diversified through long-term human occupation and species introductions. Using a multi-metric ecological network approach integrating modularity-based roles, centrality indices and motif analyses, we quantified how plants and dispersers contribute to network structure under each management context. Anthropogenic diversification increased interaction diversity and the number of dispersal events but resulted in a less cohesive network dominated by peripheral species and a narrow set of structurally central dispersers. In contrast, the historically oriented management island exhibited lower interaction diversity but greater network cohesion, with strong redundancy in plant-level dispersal pathways. Shared species occupied different structural roles across islands, indicating strong context dependence in their contribution to seed dispersal networks. Motif analyses revealed contrasting interaction niche structures across management contexts. In the anthropogenically diversified island, dispersal relied on a small set of generalist dispersers, suggesting potential vulnerability to their loss. In the historically oriented management island, dispersal was spread across more species, indicating greater redundancy. These differences imply distinct but predictable vulnerabilities arising from alternative management pathways. Our findings show that management strategies can create fundamentally different seed dispersal regimes, even under similar environmental conditions. Anthropogenic diversification reshapes network organisation into distinct structural configurations, rather than consistently enhancing overall cohesion. Incorporating interaction structure into conservation planning can help prioritise key dispersers and plants, anticipate hidden vulnerabilities, and guide management actions that better sustain seed dispersal processes in human-modified island ecosystems., European Research Council: 101054177, Agencia Estatal de Investigación: CEX2021-001198., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Ant-flower interactions are prevalent in many ecosystems, yet their ecological significance remains poorly understood, particularly in isolated systems like the Galapagos Islands, where unique biotic assemblages create distinct interaction networks. To address this gap, we examined ant-flower interactions across five Galapagos Islands, focusing on the dynamics between non-native, native non-endemic and endemic plants. Through network analysis, we explored variations in the structure, strength and specificity of these interactions among islands, emphasizing differences between native and non-native species. Older islands, such as San Cristobal and Santa Cruz, exhibited higher interaction diversity and evenness, while smaller, more isolated islands like Santiago and Pinta showed more specialised and less connected networks. Non-native ants emerged as key species with the highest number of interactions, highlighting their expanding ecological role and the pressing need for conservation strategies addressing invasive species. These findings provide valuable insights into the ecological dynamics and vulnerabilities of ant-flower networks, informing biodiversity conservation efforts on oceanic islands., This work is framed within project IslandLife funded by the ERC AdG (Ref: 101054177) and project DEPICT (PID2020-114324GB-C21) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. The present research was carried out within the framework of the activities of the Spanish Government through the ‘Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence’ accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021-001198)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

Root-associated fungi can influence plant germination, growth, survival, reproduction and coexistence. Yet, their diversity and distribution are still poorly known with most studies focusing on single plant species. We studied the diversity, composition and biogeographic patterns of root-associated fungi from small islands of five archipelagos, spanning diverse climates, plant communities and island characteristics. Our results revealed a distinct biogeographic pattern, with minimal taxon overlap and different diversity levels linked to island age, climate, and plant diversity. Ascomycetes dominated all sites, but basidiomycete abundance peaked on tropical islands. Saprotrophs and pathogens were the most abundant functional groups across islands. In contrast, mutualistic fungi showed disproportionately high diversity relative to their low abundance, reaching maximum values on tropical Fregate and temperate Na Redona. Our data also confirm the worldwide distribution of some wind-dispersed ascomycete genera with broad ecological niches, while uncovering unexpected hotspots of wild reservoirs for key plant pathogens., The study is framed within the project 101054177 IslandLife, funded by ERC AdG(ref: 101054177) to Anna Traveset, and has also been carried out within the framework of the Spanish Government's activities through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation to IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (CEX2021-001198). We also acknowledge partial funding from the Spanish State Research Agency MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 (CGL2017-88122-P, PID2020-114324 GB-C21). S.R-E and R.H. were supported by FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Portugal, within Projects UID/04004/2025 (DOI: 10.54499/UID/04004/2025) and LA/P/0092/2020 (DOI: 10.54499/LA/P/0092/2020)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Maria de Maeztu Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001198)., Peer reviewed

All versions are available at DOI 10.5281/zenodo.17953353, Metabarcoding results for root associated fungi in roots of plant species in five small islands. Sequencing was done using Illumina MySeq 300.

The raw number of reads for each ASV in each plant species is provided.

Information on the island in which each plant species was sampled is included in the metadata sheet: BG = Berlenga Grande, DP = Dapnhe, FR = Fregate, NR = Na Redona, MC = Montaña Clara., European Research Council
IslandLife 101054177
Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades
MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, Peer reviewed

Pollinators play a vital role in most terrestrial ecosystems, supporting wild plant communities and enhancing agricultural yields. However, despite their ecological and economic importance, they have been experiencing an alarming decline over the past decades. The Mediterranean region, known for harboring highly diverse communities of plants and pollinators, is particularly vulnerable due to intense anthropogenic pressures. Furthermore, the ecological roles of many floral visitors remain poorly understood, hindering conservation efforts. In response, in recent years, growing attention has been directed toward the contribution that citizens can give in support of pollinator research. An increasing number of projects have adopted a Citizen Science approach to enable large-scale data collection. The LIFE 4 Pollinators project (LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755) “Involving people to protect wild bees and other pollinators in the Mediterranean” aims to promote the conservation of pollinating insects and entomophilous plants across the Mediterranean region by fostering progressive changes in human practices that threaten wild pollinators. In addition to the implementation of several actions to raise awareness, the project launched a web platform to collect photographic records of flower–insect interaction from the public. The platform is expected to remain active for at least ten years, during which we encourage continuing record submissions by interested bodies. With this data paper we are making the current dataset freely accessible to anyone, committing to periodic online updates., This work was implemented under the LIFE 4 Pollinators project (LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755). The University of the Aegean was partially supported by the Green Fund for the implementation of the LIFE 4 Pollinators project’s actions in Greece. The web server currently hosting the LIFE 4 Pollinators web platform is provided by LifeWatch Italy through the project “LifeWatchPLUS (CIR- 517 01_00028)”, funded by the European Union – Next Generation EU. MG (partially), ER (fully) were supported by the Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), Project title “National Biodiversity Future Center -NBFC”. CUP J33C22001190001 / F83C22000730006. FFB's PhD grant was co-financed by the European Union- FSE REACT EU – PON R&I 2014–2020. AT, JMS and LN were partially supported by PolinIslas (ref. OAPN 2713/2021) project. AT was also partially supported by IslandLife ERC project under the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (ref. 101054177)., Peer reviewed

Ecosystem restoration is increasingly implemented to mitigate biodiversity loss. Epiphytes represent up to a third of tropical plant diversity and perform key ecosystem functions. Yet, they are highly vulnerable to deforestation and their recovery under restoration remains understudied. We evaluated the effect of invasive plant removal on host-structurally dependent plant (SDP) interactions in the endemic and endangered Scalesia pedunculata forest on Santa Cruz Island (Galapagos). We considered the full assemblage of SDPs, including obligate, facultative, accidental epiphytes and other phorophyte-associated plants such as vines and lianas. Using 20 paired 10 × 10 m plots (invaded versus 11 years of restoration), we compared interaction network structure, SDP diversity and the main predictors of SDP richness. Network descriptors did not differ between treatments but restored plots supported higher richness. Richness per host increased with moss cover and host tree diameter (DBH) in sites under restoration, indicating improved host suitability. The endemic S. pedunculata was identified as a keystone host, with the highest species strength and degree. However, its lack of regeneration in invaded plots threatens long-term SDP persistence. Our findings demonstrate that restoration enhanced SDP richness by fostering suitable hosts, highlighting the relevance of integrating biotic interactions into restoration planning and monitoring., P.F. was funded by the Ikerbasque fellowship awarded to I.D. and the IslandLife project awarded to A.T. (ERC AdG grant, ref. no. 101054177). I.D. was funded by an Ikerbasque postdoctoral fellowship. I.D. and A.T. acknowledge support by María de Maeztu Excellence Unit 2023-2027 refs CEX2021-74 001201-M and CEX2021-001198-M respectively, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/50110001103., With funding from the Spanish government through the ‘María de Maeztu Unit of Excelence’ accreditation (CEX2021-001201-M), With funding from the Spanish government through the ‘María de Maeztu Unit of Excelence’ accreditation (CEX2021-001198-M), Peer reviewed

These data were collected during fieldwork in the Scalesia pedunculata forest on Santa Cruz Island (Galapagos, Ecuador), near the twin volcanic sinkholes “Los Gemelos” (550–600 m a.s.l.; 00°37′20″ S, 90°23′00″ W), and are associated with manuscript entitled: "The forest within the forest: restoration of Galapagos host-epiphyte networks". Between October - December 2024, twenty 10 × 10 m plots were sampled, organized as 10 pairs representing two treatments: invaded (no management) vs. restored forest, where invasive species (Rubus niveus and Cestrum auriculatum) are regularly removed. Paired plots were located 20 m apart, and pairs were at least 50 m from the nearest pair., Sampling followed the grid-point intercept method with 36 points per plot. At each grid point, all potential host plants (>1 m height or >5 cm diameter at breast height, DBH) were recorded, and the occurrence of associated vascular epiphytes (including mosses, ferns, angiosperms, vines, and one hemi-parasite) was assessed. For each host plant, species, DBH, proportion of moss cover, and all associated epiphytes were recorded., This repository contains 7 data files (provided as compressed archive DATA.zip) and 8 R scripts (provided in the compressed archive SCRIPTS.zip). All analyses were conducted in R version 4.4.2 (2024-10-31). Required packages are specified in each script. All data files should be placed in the working directory, and the incidence matrices must be stored in the folder /data_plot_new within the working directory., To facilitate reproducibility, detailed package and dependency version information is provided in the file:
R_SessionInfo_packages.docx. This file contains the output of sessioninfo::session_info() for each of the eight R scripts provided in this repository, Ecosystem restoration is increasingly implemented to mitigate biodiversity loss. Epiphytes can represent up to a third of tropical plant diversity and perform key ecosystem functions. Yet, they are highly vulnerable to deforestation and their recovery under restoration remains understudied. We evaluated the effect of invasive plant removal (Rubus niveus and Cestrum auriculatum) on facultative host-epiphyte interactions in the endemic and endangered Scalesia pedunculata forest on Santa Cruz Island (Galapagos). Using 20 paired 10 × 10 m plots (invaded vs. 11 years of restoration), we compared host–epiphyte network structure, epiphyte diversity, and the main factors influencing epiphyte richness. While network descriptors did not differ between treatments, restored plots supported higher epiphyte richness. Epiphyte richness per host increased with moss cover and host tree diameter (DBH), both key facilitators of epiphyte colonization, and was significantly higher under restoration, indicating improved host suitability. The endemic and threatened S. pedunculata was identified as a keystone host, with the highest species strength and degree. However, its lack of regeneration in invaded plots threatens long-term epiphyte persistence, as invasive hosts offer minimal epiphyte support. Our findings demonstrate that restoration enhanced epiphyte richness by fostering suitable hosts, highlighting the relevance of integrating biotic interactions into restoration planning and monitoring., Peer reviewed

[eng] Pollinators play a vital role in most terrestrial ecosystems, supporting wild plant communities and enhancing agricultural yields. However, despite their ecological and economic importance, they have been experiencing an alarming decline over the past decades. The Mediterranean region, known for harboring highly diverse communities of plants and pollinators, is particularly vulnerable due to intense anthropogenic pressures. Furthermore, the ecological roles of many floral visitors remain poorly understood, hindering conservation efforts. In response, in recent years, growing attention has been directed toward the contribution that citizens can give in support of pollinator research. An increasing number of projects have adopted a Citizen Science approach to enable large-scale data collection. The LIFE 4 Pollinators project (LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755) “Involving people to protect wild bees and other pollinators in the Mediterranean” aims to promote the conservation of pollinating insects and entomophilous plants across the Mediterranean region by fostering progressive changes in human practices that threaten wild pollinators. In addition to the implementation of several actions to raise awareness, the project launched a web platform to collect photographic records of flower–insect interaction from the public. The platform is expected to remain active for at least ten years, during which we encourage continuing record submissions by interested bodies. With this data paper we are making the current dataset freely accessible to anyone, committing to periodic online updates.

Las islas son ecosistemas especialmente vulnerables a las invasiones biológicas debido a su aislamiento geográfico, alta especialización y baja presión por depredadores naturales y competencia. De hecho, las especies invasoras han contribuido al 86 % de las extinciones de las especies endémicas insulares. En este trabajo, hacemos una revisión de los impactos ecológicos de las invasiones biológicas en islas, tanto sobre los rasgos funcionales de las especies nativas como sobre distintas funciones e interacciones ecológicas. La introducción de especies puede afectar a los rasgos funcionales de las especies, ya sea aumentando la diversidad funcional al incorporar nuevos rasgos al ecosistema o reduciéndola al introducir rasgos redundantes a los de las especies nativas. Las interacciones ecológicas, tanto mutualistas (polinización, dispersión de semillas, planta-microorganismo) como antagonistas (herbivoría, parasitismo patógeno, depredación), también pueden verse alteradas. Los impactos indirectos de las especies invasoras, complejos y difíciles de cuantificar, pueden ser cruciales en ecosistemas insulares, comúnmente afectados por múltiples especies invasoras que pueden interactuar entre sí. Aunque las especies introducidas pueden causar importantes disrupciones ecológicas, en algunos casos también pueden reemplazar funcionalmente a especies nativas extintas. Abordar las lagunas de conocimiento identificadas en este estudio será esencial para proteger los ecosistemas insulares frente a las invasiones biológicas. Futuros trabajos deberían adoptar enfoques interdisciplinarios y colaborativos que integren la variación contextual y los diferentes niveles de organización ecológica. Este tipo de investigación será esencial para desarrollar estrategias de conservación más efectivas, orientadas a preservar no solo la biodiversidad insular, sino también la estabilidad y funcionalidad de estos ecosistemas únicos., Este estudio se ha llevado a cabo en el marco de las actividades del Gobierno de España a través de la Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu 2023-2027 (MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033) concedido al IMEDEA (CSIC-UIB) (ref. CEX2021-001198) y al BC3 (ref. CEX2021-001201-M). El trabajo se enmarca también dentro del proyecto IslandLife (Ref. 101054177) financiado por el Consejo Europeo de Investigación (ERC, Advanced Grant). I. Donoso fue financiada por una beca postdoctoral Ikerbasque. M. Vollstädt fue financiado por una beca postdoctoral Marie Curie (Horizon-TMA-MSCA-101149502). Los autores declaran no tener ningún conflicto de interés.

Plant diversity is critical to ensure the future of humanity, as it provides essential ecosystem services and functioning. As recent estimates showed that animal-mediated pollination is crucial for the reproduction of approximately 90% of flowering plants, playing an essential role in maintaining biodiversity and agricultural productivity, effort to preserve plants cannot be disjoined from pollinator conservation initiatives. Despite their importance, pollinators have experienced alarming declines. The LIFE 4 Pollinators project was launched to involve people protecting wild bees and other pollinators in the Mediterranean. This study presents data collected through the project’s web-platform, where users uploaded over 2,000 photographs of plant-pollinator interactions between 2021 and 2024. The dataset focuses on the identification of flower-visiting insects and plants, and the current study gives emphasis to citizen scientists’ ability to identify plants and pollinators. 1,407 photo-records were analysed, revealing that bees and beetles were the most frequent pollinators, with plants of the Asteraceae and Cistaceae families being the most recorded. Users correctly identified 93.7% of insect taxonomic aggregations and 74.2% of plant species. The study also highlights the recording of threatened, alien, and invasive species, including the vulnerable Callicera spinolae and the invasive Vespa velutina. The plant-pollinator network analysis supports the floral syndrome concept, with floral morphologies like ‘Head’ and ‘Disk’ attracting a wide range of pollinators. The results indicate that citizen science contributes to the identification and monitoring of pollinators, generating knowledge that may be key to the conservation of these organisms and to better understand plant-pollinator interactions. Data collection through citizen-generated photographs allows to significantly expand the geographic area and the magnitude of studies, facilitating large-scale analyses that would be difficult to achieve with traditional monitoring methods. These findings provide a useful basis for future conservation initiatives and the development of policies aimed at mitigating pollinator decline, National Biodiversity Future Center -NBFC | Ref. CUP J33C22001190001, European Union- FSE REACT EU – PON R&I | Ref. 2014–2020, European Union | Ref. LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755, Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales (OAPN) | Ref. | Ref. OAPN 2713/2021

Pollinators play a vital role in most terrestrial ecosystems, supporting wild plant communities and enhancing agricultural yields. However, despite their ecological and economic importance, they have been experiencing an alarming decline over the past decades. The Mediterranean region, known for harboring highly diverse communities of plants and pollinators, is particularly vulnerable due to intense anthropogenic pressures. Furthermore, the ecological roles of many floral visitors remain poorly understood, hindering conservation efforts. In response, in recent years, growing attention has been directed toward the contribution that citizens can give in support of pollinator research. An increasing number of projects have adopted a Citizen Science approach to enable large-scale data collection. The LIFE 4 Pollinators project (LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755) “Involving people to protect wild bees and other pollinators in the Mediterranean” aims to promote the conservation of pollinating insects and entomophilous plants across the Mediterranean region by fostering progressive changes in human practices that threaten wild pollinators. In addition to the implementation of several actions to raise awareness, the project launched a web platform to collect photographic records of flower–insect interaction from the public. The platform is expected to remain active for at least ten years, during which we encourage continuing record submissions by interested bodies. With this data paper we are making the current dataset freely accessible to anyone, committing to periodic online updates., European Union | Ref. LIFE18/GIE/IT/000755, Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales (OAPN) | Ref. | Ref. OAPN 2713/2021, National Biodiversity Future Center -NBFC | Ref. CUP J33C22001190001